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AN ABRIDGED 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



CONDENSED CHRONOLOGY, 



FROM THE TIME OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS TO THE 
REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA; 



A SYNOPSIS OF ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, 

ITS GOVERNMENT, INSTITUTIONS, &c. 



COMPILED BY y 

ARCHIBALD HAMILTON McCALMAN. 




' %^ 



yNo.AJ^^^r.^j] 



NEW YORK: 

TROWS PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, 

201-213 East Twelfth Stkeet. 

1880. 



V'\ 



I •! CONGRESS 
WASHINGTON 



CONTENTS. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Queen Victoria Frontispiece. 

Map of Ancient England page 5 

•' " Fkance with English Possessions 92 

" " England in THE Nineteenth Centuky C44 

PAGES 

REIGNED. . . , -n •!. • 1 

B.C. A.D. Ancient Britain ^ 

55—410. The Roman Rule 3 

450—827. Origin of the English People and Saxon Conquest 3-6 

827—837. Egbert, first King of England 7-9 

837—857. Ethelwulf 9-11 

857—806. Ethelbald and Ethelbert 13 

866—871. Ethelred 13-13 

871—901. Alfred the Great ■> l^-l-J 

901—925. Edward the Elder l'^-l~ 

925—940. Athelstan l"-!'^ 

940—946. Edmund I '^^'^^ 

946—955. Edred l'^-3 1 

955—958. Edwy •••••. 31-23 

958—975. Edgar 33-26 

975—978. Edward the Martyr 37-29 

978—1016. Ethelred II •,• • • 39-34 

1016. Edmund 11. (Ironsides) v 34-35 

1016—1041. The Danish Rule 36 

1016—1035. Canute 37-40 

1035—1039. Harold I. (Harefoot) 40-41 

1039—1042. Hardicanute '^3-43 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



V 



PAGES 

1042—1066. The Saxon Rule Restored 43 

1U42— lOGG. Edward the Confessor 43-49 

\l lUCC. Harold II 49-53 

lOGG— 1154. The Norman Rule 54 

lOGG— 1087. -William I. (the Conqueror) 55-6G 

1087—1100. William II. (Rufus) G6-73 

1100—1135. Henry I. (Beau Clerk; 72-80 

1135—1154. Stephen '. 80-89 

1154—1485. The Plantagenets 90 

11.54—1189. Henry II 91-104 

1189—1199. Richard I. (Ccenr de Lion) 104-llG 

1199-1216. John (Lackland) 117-124 

121G— 1273. Henry III 125-138 

1272—1307. Edward I. (Longshanks) 138-145 

1307—1327. Edward II 14G-157 

1327—1377. Edward III 157-170 

1377—1399. Richard II 170-177 

1399—1461. House of Lancaster 178-179 

1399—1413. Henry IV 179-188 

1413—1423. Henry V 188-198 

1422—1461. Henry VI 198-214 

1401—1485. The House of York 215 

14G1— 1483. Edward IV 216-226 

1483. Edward V 22G-231 

1483—1485. Richard III 231-243 

1485—1603. House of Tudor 243 

1485—1509. Henry VII 244-255 

1509—1547. Henry VIII 255-279 

1547—1553. Edward VI 280-287 

1553. Lady Jane Gray 288-290 

1553—1558. Mary 291-300 

1558—1603. Elizabeth 300-328 

1(303-1714. House of Stuart 329 

1003—1625. James I". 830-339 

1635-1649. Charles 1 340-358 

1040—1660, Interregnum 359-367 

1000-1685. Charles II.'. 368-387 

1685—1688. James II 387-400 

1089-1702. William and Mary 400-425 



CONTENTS. vii 

PAGES 

1 703—1 714. Anne 425-445 

1714 to the Present Day. House of Brunswick 446-447 

1714—1727. George 1 447-4G0 

1727-1700. George U: 461-487 

1760—1820. George III 488-543 

1811—1820. The Regency 532-543 

1820—1830. George IV 543-557 

1830—1837. William IV 557-570 

1837 to the Present Day. Victoria. 571-643 

England in the Nineteenth Century 645-647 

The Political Institutions, etc 647-653 

Orders of Knighthood and Peerage 653-667 

British Empire and National Debt 668 

Genealogical Tables 669 



ANCIENT BRITAIN. 



HISTOEIC LEGENDS AND EARLY INHABITANTS. 

Of tlie history of England before the Roman invasion bv 
Jnhns Ctesar, b.c. 55, nothing authentic is known. Of the 
many legendary accounts, one accepted by many writers is 
that Albion, for so the island was then called, was inhab- 
ited by giants, who were subdued by Brutus, a descendant of 
^neas the Trojan, renowned as the founder of Home. Bru- 
tus, in this account, gave the island his name, afterward changed 
to Britaimicus, or Britain, It is said that he founded a great 
city on the river Thames and called it Tr^^novant, or Xew Troy, 
but it was subsequently embellished by King Lud, who called it 
after himself, Lud's town, now London. Brutus had three sons, 
to whom, it is said, he gave England, Scotland, and Wales. 

There are other stories : of the coming of the Picts, Scots, 
Norsemen, and Danes ; of the w^ise rule of Belinus, brother of 
Breinus, who sacked Home ; others still which may be disre- 
garded. 

Dismissing these legends, the first certain fact is, that some 
five hundred years before the Christian era, adventurous mari- 
ners from the distant cities of Tyre and Sidon, knowm under the 
general name of Phoenicians, used to visit the western part of 
the island, now called Cornwall, and there procured tin, or metal 
then esteemed almost as valuable as gold. They did all they 
could to keep the knowledge of the riches of Britain to them- 



2 ANCIENT BRITAIN. 

selves, but tins tliey conld not always do, as people fi'om Gaul 
and other parts of the mainland also found their way to the 
" Tin Island," as they called it, traded there, and ultimately 
established themselves on the coast — at first, by permission of 
the people ; afterward, as they grew more numerous, iii spite 
of them. 

The native Britons wore little clothing, generally, the skins 
of beasts ; but, as some defence against the weather, they stained 
their bodies blue or green, which also served to frighten their 
enemies. Their chief weapons were hatchets of stone : their 
arrow-heads were flints. 

The Gauls were very different ; they had orderly govern- 
ments, comprising kings, nobles, and priests, as at home. They 
dwelt in circular houses, cultivated the land, had a coinage, and 
traded with those of the opposite shore ; but what most dis- 
tinguished them from the natives was, that they were skilled in 
the art of war, and had weapons of iron and of brass. 

Britons and Gauls had in common, however, a terrible system 
of false religion, taught by the Druids. These priests lived 
retired in the woods and had unbounded influence over the 
people, who regarded them as inspired, and they Nvei-e conse- 
quently more powerful than the chiefs. 

Such were the people when Julius Csesai' invaded and pre- 
pared to subdue Britain, b.c. 55. 

THE ROMAN RULE : B.C. 55 TO A.D. 410. 

Julius Caesar had long been engaged in war with the Gauls, 
and on the 25th day of August, b.c. 55, set sail from Gesoria- 
cum, now Boulogne, with ten thousand men well inured in war. 
They embarked in about eighty vessels, and were accompanied 
by several long ships, or men-of-war ; these had engines for cast- 
ing huge darts and heavy stones, and it was by their assistance 



ANCIENT BRITAIN. 3 

that tlie invaders were successful. They Landed at Deal Beach, 
when the contest at once began. 

Having conquered the country and the people having made 
terms, Csesar re-embarked and reached the opposite shore the 
following day. 

From that time until the year a.d. 43, Britain was not mo- 
lested by the Eomans, but in that year Claudius undertook its 
subjugation and sent an army of forty thousand men, under 
Aulus Plautius, a force too great to be resisted. The emperor 
soon followed, remaining on the island only sixteen days — suffi- 
cient time for its subjugation — then returned to Home, cele- 
brated his triumph thei'e and took the name of Britannicus. 
The war, liowe\er, was not over, but continued several years, 
the natives bearing their yoke with sullen submission until a.d. 
78, when Agricola received sole command. He then began a 
series of seven campaigns, which ended in firmly establishing 
the Koman power. 

The Roman army at different times penetrated as far as the 
Grampian hills, in Scotland, but the northern part of the king- 
dom was never subdued by the invaders. 

Although the Roman rule was sustained in Britain for tliree 
hundred and twenty-six years after the recall of Agricola, very 
few incidents are recorded. Daring that time the country was 
governed by an officer styled Legate, or Yicar. 

In the year -ilO Rome itself fell, was taken by the Goths, but 
many Romans remained on the island until the year 418, when, 
it is said, they collected all their treasures, and, hiding a portion 
in the earth, carried the remainder with them into Gaul. 

From this time for more than one hundred and fifty years, 
the history of Britain is very confused and uncertain. We 
know the Saxons triumphed over the Britons, but few particu- 
lars, further than that after Honorius abandoned Britain, the 
natives, finding it impossible to defend themselves against the 



4 ANCIENT BRITAIN. 

Picts, called the Saxons to tlieir aid in 419 — who assisted them 
so effectually that they took possession of the country, triumphed 
over the Britons, and, at last, were the sole possessors of the 
land. 

ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 

For the fatherland of the English, we must now look far 
away from England itself. 

In the fifth centuiy the one country which we know hore the 
name of Angeln^ or England, lay within the district now called 
Sleswick, in the heart of the peninsula that parts the Baltic 
from the Grerman Ocean. On the one side, the Saxons of West- 
phalia held the land, from the "Weser to the Rhine ; on tlie 
other, the Eastphalian Saxons stretched away to the Elbe. 
Xorth,' again, lay another tribe, the Jutes; but they all be- 
longed to the same Low German family. From a union of all 
of them, the English people have sj)rung. 

riengist established the kingdom of Kent about the year 450 ; 
it comprised the counties now known as Kent, Essex, Middlesex, 
Hertford, and part of Surrey. He fixed his royal seat at Can- 
tei'bury, and died there in the year 488. His successful career 
excited the avidity of other Northern Germans, chiefly com- 
posed of three tribes — the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes — who 
were sometimes called Saxons, sometimes Angles, all speaking 
the same language 'and governed by the same institutions, and 
tliey were naturally led by these causes, as well as from com- 
mon interest, to unite against tlie ancient inhabitants. 

Resistance, though unequal, was still maintained by the Bri- 
tons, who every day became more feeble and seldom free from 
calamities, until driven into Cornwall and Wales, where they 
were protected only by their remote situation or the inaccessible 
mountains of these regions. 

Soon after the landino- of Hengist in the south, the Saxons 



ANCIENT BRITAIN. 5 

settled in Northiimbria, but met with obstinate resistance and 
made little progress in subduing the natives. Their affairs were 
in so unsettled a condition, that none of their princes for a long 
time assumed the title of king. At last, in the year 543, Ida, a 
Saxon prince of great valor, brought over a reinforcement from 
Saxony, and subdued that part of the country comprising 
Northumberland, Cumberland, Durham, and the southeast 
counties of Scotland, and assumed the title of King of Ber- 
nicia. About this time. Alia, another Saxon prince, conc^uered 
Lancashire and part of Yorkshire, assuming the title of King 
of Deiri. These two kingdoms were afterward united and 
known as jS'ortlmmbria, under Ethelfrid as king. 

The next Saxon state, the kingdom of South Saxony, was 
established in the year 477. Ella, a Saxon chief, brought over 
an army, landed on the south coast, and proceeded to take pos- 
cession of the neighboring territory. 

The Britons, now armed, did not tamely abandon their posses- 
sion of the neighboring territory, nor were they expelled until 
defeated in many battles, when Ealla assumed the title of king, 
and extended his dominion over Sussex and the greater part of 
Surrey. He was stopped in his progress to the east by the king- 
dom of Kent, and on the west by another tribe of Saxons who 
had taken possession. 

A body of Saxons came under leadership of Cerdic and in 
495 founded the kingdom of Wessex, comprising the counties 
of Hants, Dorset, Devon, Wilts, Berks, and the Isle of Wight. 
Cerdic died in 534, and was succeeded by his son Kenric. 

While the Saxons were thus progressing in the south, their 
countrymen were not inactive in other quarters. In the year 
527 a great number of adventurers landed on the east coast, 
and after many battles established three new kingdoms : Uffa 
assumed the title King of the East Angles, in the year 575, his 
kingdom comprising Cambridge, Suffolk, and Xorfolk ; Creda 



Q ANCIENT BRITAIN. 

establislied the kingdom of Mercia in 585, extending over tlie 
middle counties, from the banks of the Severn to the boundaries 
of the East Angles and East Sussex ; Erkenwan formed the 
kingdom of East Saxony, or Essex, about the same time, the 
latter being dismembered from that of Kent, and comprising 
Essex, Middlesex, and a part of Hertford. 

Thus was established, after a violent contest continuing nearly 
one hundred and fifty years, the jfHeptarchy, or Seven Saxon 
Kingdoms in England. The whole southern part of the island, 
except Wales and Cornwall, had totally changed its inhabitants, 
language, customs, and institutions. The Heptarchy was main- 
tained for over two hundred years, when the whole was con- 
solidated into one kingdom, by Egbert, a.d. 827, 



AN ABRIDGED 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 



THE FIRST ANGLO-SAXOiV KIXG TO THE DANISH RULE. 



A.D. 827-1017. 



Egbert— A. D. 827-837. 

Egbert, styled the great King of the West Saxons, was son of 
Alkmund, King of Kent, whose descent he traced back through 
Eata and Eoppa to Inigisil, the brother of the great Ina, and 
undoubtedly a descendant of Cerdic, who died in the year 53^, 
and he was regarded as the only male descendant of the founder 
of the royal house of Wessex. 

When Brihtric became King of Wessex in 780, Egbert, then 
very young, or his friends for him, claimed the throne. Brih- 
tric is said to have soon after made an attempt on his life, upon 
which he took refuge at the court of Offa, the powerful King 
of Mercia. After a short time, however, he lost Offa's protec- 
tion on Brihtric marrying a daughter of that king. Egbert 
then fled to France, where he was received and protected by 
Charlemagne, in whose armies he served a number of years^ and 
at whose court at Rome he abode imtil the death of Brihtric,. 
who was poisoned by his wife in the year 800. lie M^as tlien 



8 EGBERT. [809-S33. 

recalled, and by the unanimous vote of the "\Yitan appointed to 
the vacant throne. 

. At tlie time of Egl)ert's accession, the Saxon States in Eng- 
land were reduced to three independent sovereignties : Korth- 
unibria; Mercia, which had rediiced to subjection Kent, Essex, 
and East Anglia ; Wessex, with which Sussex had become in- 
corporated. Of these three po\yerSy Xorthumbria was torn by 
internal dissensions, and for the preservation of its independence 
was chiefly indebted, probably, to the rivalry between the other 
two. 

The conquests and able rule of Offa, however, had raised 
Mercia to a decided pre-eminence over Wessex, and at this time 
the Mercian throne was occupied by Cenwulf, who was well 
qualified to wield the sceptre of Offa, and who had even ex- 
tended the territory which he had inherited. The two States 
were at war when Egbert became king, but a peace was soon 
concluded between them, and he made no attempt at conquest 
over any part of Saxon England during the remainder of Cen- 
wulf's life. 

Through the first nine years of his reign Egbert seems not to 
have drawn his sword. Then, in the year 809, he engaged in 
war against the alien tribes that still remained unsubdued in 
the west, and it is recorded that l)etween this period and the 
year 81-1 lie subjugated, or, at least, overrun and reduced to 
temporary subihission, all Cornwall, including Devon, and South 
Wales; but soon after the death of Cenwulf, in 819, we find 
him entering upon a new career. 

In S'23 a dispute about the succession to the Mercian throne 
raised the East Angles in revolt. Egbert's aid, on being applied 
for, was readily given to the insurgents, and a great battle took 
place at Ellendune — supposed to be Wilton — resulting in the 
complete overthrow of the Mercians. Essex and Kent were 
then seized by Egbert, or voluntarily submitted to him. lie 
designed to leave the East Angles independent for a time, and 
did not deem Mercia herself sufficientlj^ weakened to be attacked 
with effect. A continuation of the dispute about the succession, 
however, and another revolt of the East Angles, soon produced 
tlie state of things for which he waited. 



827-837.] ETHEL WULF. 9 

In 827 he marclied against Mercia. Wiglaf, the king, fled 
to the inonasteiy of Croyhmd, but soon made his submission 
and was permitted to retain the kingdom, as the vassal or tribu- 
tary of Egbert, who appears to have taken East Anglia nnder 
liis immediate government. Witliout loss of time he now led 
his army against Xorthumbria. The king, Eanrad, offered him 
no resistance, but meeting Egbert at a place called Dore, to the 
north of the llumber, acknowledged him as Bretwalda. lie 
was the eighth Saxon said to have attained that dignity. The 
last was the Northumbrian king, Oswio. 

Egbert had thus become the actual sovereign of the whole 
Heptarchy, and in the year 827 assumed the title. King of Eng- 
land. The word England can be traced, in occasional use, as 
far back as the year OS,S, but was for the first time legally 'rec- 
ognized by the edict of Egbert. 

Peace reigned until 832, when the Danes landed on the island 
of Sheppey, ravaged the coast, and carried oft" a rich Ijooty, 
The following year they disembarked at C'harmouth from a fleet 
of thirty-five sail, and defeated a force that Egbert sent against 
them. They landed again, in 835, on the coast of C'ornwall, 
where they formed an alliance with the Britons. Egbert in 
person encountered their united forces at Ileiigston Hill, gained 
a decisive victory, punished the rebels, and drove the invaders 
from the land. 

Egbert was born about the year 775 ; married Redburga ; had 
issue : Ethelbald, Ethelwulf, who succeeded him, and Athelstan. 
He died 837, in the sixty-third year of his age and the tenth year 
of his reign over England, and was succeeded by his second son. 

CoNTEMPOKAKY RuLERS. — -'Frauce : Louis I. ; Scotland : l)ou- 
gal, Alpin. 

Ethelwulf— A. D. 837-857. 

Ethelwulf, son of Egbert by his queen, Redburga, was bom 
in the year 803. He had neither the vigor nor the abilities of 
his father, and was better suited to govern a convent than a 
kingdom, but in consequence of the death of his elder brother, 
Ethelbald, he ascended the throne on the death of Egbert. 



10 ETHEL WULF. [S37-S52. 

He began liis reign by transferring tlie government of the 
provinces of Kent, Essex, and Snssex to liis eldest son, Athel- 
stan, but retaining supreme antliority. 

All that has been recorded of the first fourteen or fifteen 
years of this reign consists almost exclusiv^ely of the account of 
a series of conflicts with the Danes,, who now continued, with 
incessant perseverance, those descents upon the English coasts 
which they had commenced in the previous reign. In 837 three 
squadrons of them made attacks at different points, almost at 
the same time. The following year they landed in great 
strength in Lincolnshire, and, after defeating the troops sent 
against them, marched across the country, down to the Thames, 
ravaging as they went. In 839 three hard battles were fought 
— at Rochester, Canterbury, and London — besides an action at- 
sea, near Ciiarmouth, in which the English fleet, commanded 
by Ethelwulf in person, was defeated. For several years after 
this, however, the Xorthmen abandoned England, and directed 
all their efforts against the coast of France ; but near the close 
of the year 850, a body of them landed in the Isle of Thanet, 
when so ill prepared was Ethelwulf for the attack, that the 
Danes were enabled to pass tlie winter in the country. In the 
spring of 851 they were joined by a large nund)er of their 
countrymen and the entire force ascended the Thames in a fleet 
of three hundred and fifty vessels, plundered and burned Canter- 
bury and London, penetrated into Surrey, and were there met 
by Ethelwulf, at Oakley, with an army he had raised for the 
purpose. After a long and obstinate battle, the Danes were 
defeated with great slaugliter. They were shortly after beaten 
in another battle, at Wenbury, in Devonshire, and again, in a 
sea-fight, near Sandwich, by Athelstan. In consecjuence of these 
reverses, the Danes made no further attack on England during 
the remainder of the reign of Ethelwulf. 

In 852, on the death of Athelstan, the government of Kent 
and the provinces was assigned by Ethelwulf to his second son 
Ethelbert, he himself retaining the supreme authority, as before. 
The following year, at the request of Beohred, King of Mercia, 
he led an army against the Welsh, and marched through their 
country as far as the Island of Anglesey, compelling them to 



S5 :-S57. ] ETHELWULF. -[ ^ 

acknowledge tl^emselves his subjects. On the termination of 
this expedition he gave his daughter, Ethelswitha, in marriage 
to the King of Mercia. 

Tlie imsettled state of the country did not prevent Etheh\"alf 
from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whither he carried his 
youngest and favorite son, Alfred, then only six yeai's old, to 
have him consecrated and named as his successor, lie remained 
twelve months in the Holy City, in devotional exercises, and 
displaying great liberality to the church. On his return, his 
wife Osburga being dead, he tarried a few months in France, 
and there married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, King 
of the Franks, and brought her with him to England. 

In the meantime, however, his son Ethelbald, taking advan- 
tage of his father's absence, had entered into a conspiracy for 
seizing the kingdom, and it is said that the principal minister, 
Alstan, was his accomplice, supported by the leading nobility 
of the nation. From this we infer that the attempted revolu- 
tion was not without some good reason, and although the return 
of Ethelwulf is said to have prevented the full success of the 
design, it was substantially carried into effect. It was agreed in 
a solemn meeting of the Witan that Ethelbald should become 
King of Wessex, Ethelwulf retaining the supreme power as 
well as the government of the west of the kingdom. 

Tithes were first levied in this reign, an edict for their assess- 
ment being one of the last acts of the king. 

Ethelwulf mari'ied Osbui'ga ; by her had issue, five sons : 
Athelstan, King of Kent ; Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and 
Alfred, who all succeeded to the throne ; one daughter, Ethel- 
switha, who married Beohred, King of Mercia. He died in the 
year 857, the fifty-fom-th year of his age, and the twentieth 
of his reign. By his will he shared England between his two 
eldest surviving sons, the AVest being assigned to Ethelbald, the 
East to Ethelbert. 

Contemporary Kulers. — Scotland : Kenneth II. ; Fi-ance : 
Charles II. (the Bald) ; Emperors of the West : Louis I., Lothaire, 
Louis 11. 



12 ETHELBALD, ETHELBERT— ETHELRED I. [857-860. 



Ethelbald— A.D. 857-860; Ethelbert— A.D. 857-866. 

The kingdom was divided coiifonnably with the will of the 
late king. Ethelbald ruled Wessex and the West. lie was a 
profligate prince and gave great offence to his people by marry- 
ing Judith, his step-mother, but by the advice of Swethen, 
Bishop of Winchester, he was prevailed upon to have a divorce 
from her. He reigned only two years, when Ethelbert suc- 
ceeded to the government of the whole kingdom, whose undi- 
vided reign of seven years was worthy of his birth and station. 

The country was several times invaded by the Danes during 
this reign ; they sacked Winchester, but Avere afterward de- 
feated. 

Ethelbald was at various times concerned in many conflicts 
with the Danes, and distinguished himself by great bravery, 
but otherwise holds no remarkable place in history. He died 
in the year 860, the twentieth year of his age, the second year 
of his reign, leaving no issue. Judith, his divorced wife, mar- 
ried Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and ancestor of Matilda, wife 
of William the Conqueror, and through her of the kings and 
queens of England. 

Ethelbert was a virtuous prince, beloved by all his subjects. 
He died in the year 860, the twenty -fourth year of his age, the 
fifth year of his reign. Pie left a young son, Ethelwald, who, 
being a minor, was, by Saxon rule, set aside in the succession, in 
favor of his uncle, Ethelred, fourth son of Ethelwulf . 

Contemporary Hulers. — Scotland : Kenneth XL, Donald IL, 
Constantine II. ; France : Charles II. ; Emj)eror of the West : 
Louis IL 

Ethelred I.— A.D. 866-871. 

Ethelred, fourth son of Ethelwulf, was, like his l)rother the 
late king, much loved by his subjects, but his reign was a dis- 
astrous one. He was chiefly occupied in repelling the incui-- 
sions of the Danes, who occupied East Anglia, passing thence 



866-871.] ALFRED THE GREAT. 23 

into Wessex under command of Bagsecg. Tliev were vigorously 
met by Ethel red. They pushed on, however, as far up the 
Thames as Reading, near which town a series of battles were 
fought : at Englifield, where the Danes were beaten ; at Read- 
ing, where the fortune of the day was changed ; and, subse- 
quently, at the great battle of Ashdown, where the victory of 
the English was attributed to Alfred, who, being in command 
of half the army, attacked aijd defeated the enemy, while his 
brother was losing the precious moments in prayer for success. 

Though the victory of Ashdown was complete, it did not close 
the war. Almost immediately afterward, we hear of battles at 
Basing and at Merton, in which the Danes were again successful. 

Ethelred died from the effect of a wound recei\-ed in battle, 
in the twenty-fifth year of his age, the fifth of his reign, and 
was succeeded by Alfred, his younger brother. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Constantine II. ; France : 
Charles the Bald ; Emperor of the West : Louis 11. 



Alfred (the Great)— A.D. 871-901. 

Alfred — surnamed the Great — born in Berkshire in the 
year 848, was the fifth and youngest son of Ethelwulf and his 
queen Osburga. Before he came to the throne he had made 
himself well acquainted with the condition of the people over 
whom he was to rule. ' lie was of weak health, but he led no 
sedentary life, and excelled in athletic as well as the liberal arts, 
thus becoming not only a great warrior and statesman, but the 
most practical improver of the people, extending their knowl- 
edge and inciting their industry. He even taught workers of 
gold and other artificers how best to labor in their crafts. He 
built houses beyond all the precedents of his ancestors ; by his 
new mechanical inventions, and by all practicable means fitted 
liimself for the duties of government. 

AVhen Alfred ascended the throne the country was in a 
most miserable condition. For a time the Danes withdrew 
from Wessexand employed their energy in subjugating Mercia. 
Burhred, who had married Alfred's sister, was driven from the 



li ALFRED THE GREAT. [871-S7S, 

tlirone and retired to Rome, to die. A Danisli agent, named 
Cnnwulf, was put in his place, and the country put under heavy 
tribute. Cunwulf in his turn was disphiced, and the Danes 
themselves took possession of much of the country. 

For seven years the king had l)een carrying on a desultory 
contest with no marked result. He made truce after truce ; he 
exacted oaths ; he received hostages. With the exception of 
his iirst naval battle, in 875, he appears to have been constantly 
aiming at a false security by vain negotiations. He had no 
power, of himself, to conclude peace or make war, without the 
authority of the Witan. The great peace which was concluded 
with Guthrum in 878 ran thus : — " This is the peace which 
Alfred the King and Guthrum the King and the AVithan of all 
the English Nation, and all the people that are in East Anglia, 
have all ordained," etc. 

This year, 878, during midwinter, after Twelfth Xight, the 
Danes stole away to Chippenham, overran the land of the 
"West Saxons, and remained there. Many of the inhabitants 
were driven beyond the sea, and of the remainder the gi-eater 
part were subdued. But Alfred could not be found, lie had 
fled ; no one knew whither. Where are his Thanes and his 
prelates ? They are not with him. lie has retreated to the 
woods and the fastnesses of the moors. The king relies upon 
himself alone. He concealed himself for more than a year in 
the hut of a cowherd ; afterward, in the centre of a bog formed 
by the stagnant waters of the Thone and the Parret, in Somer- 
setshire. At length, in the guise of a harper, he visited the 
camp of the rebels, discovered their weakness, and at a favorable 
time collected the principal men of the nation and, raising a 
small army, attacked the Danes in their weakest point, at 
Eddington, and completely defeated 'them. A result of this 
battle was the treaty of Wedmore ; by it East Anglia was su-r- 
rendered to the Danes, and a line M^as drawn to separate their 
kingdom from that of Wessex. 

This treaty-, although it curtailed the supremacy of Wessex, 
made the kingdom in fact stronger, and secured a temporary 
rest for the whole of England. Sooii after, Guthrum, the 
Danish general, was converted to Christianity, and was baptized 



887-901.] EDWARD THE ELDER. 15 

hy the name of Athelstan, Alfred adopting him as his son. lie 
continued from that time a peaceable subject. 

Alfred now directed his attention to civil aifairs, built and 
repaired cities and forts, founded a navy, raised the militia, 
established schools, compiled a code of laws, and reformed the 
administration of justice. He was distinguished as a scholar, 
as well as a patron of learning. 

The kingdom was again invaded, in the year 894, by an army 
of Northmen under Hastings, with a fleet of three hundred 
ships. They were defeated in several battles, and driven from 
the country. 

Alfred invited from all realms industrious foreigners, to re- 
people the country which had been so desolated by the Danes, 
and supplied the defects of his own subjects by engaging many 
of them in his service. He was considered one of the greatest 
and wisest of all England's kings. " He was," says Freeman, 
" a saint without superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a 
conqueror whose hands were never stained with cruelty, a prince 
never cast down by adversity, never lifted up to insolence in 
the day of triumph." 

Alfred married Ethelswitha, the daughter of a Mercian earl, in 
the year 8G8. By her he had three sons and three daughters. The 
eldest son, Edmund, died before him, without issue ; the second, 
Edward, succeeded him on the throne ; the third, Ethelward, 
inherited his father's passion for letters, and lived a private life. 

Alfred died on October 26, 901, in the lifty- second year of 
his age, and the thirtieth of his reign. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Constantine H., Etli, 
Gregory, Donald HI. ; France : CHiarles, Louis II., Louis III., 
Charles the Fat, Eudes, Charles III. ; Emperors of the West : 
Louis II., Charles the Bald, Carloman, Charles the Fat. 



Edward (the Elder) — A.D. 901-925. 

Edward, second son of Alfred the Great and his wife Ethel- 
switha, was born about the year 870; he was called to the 
throne by the choice of the Witan, and was crowned on Whit- 



1Q EDWARD THE ELDER. [901-925. 

Sunday — one linndred years having elapsed since liis great- 
grandfather Egbert liad gained liis present territories. 

This prince, who equalled his father in military talents, 
though inferior to him in knowledge, found, on his accession, 
that his title to the throne was contested. In the ease of Alfred, 
the lineal succession had been set aside ; for his elder brother, 
Ethelred, had left children, atid his son, Ethel wold, now dis- 
puted the title, and, arming his partisans, took possession of 
Wimborne, part of the royal domain, and there seemed deter- 
mined to defend himself ; but when the king approached the 
town Avith a large army, Ethelwold made his escape into North- 
umbria, where the Danes chose him as king. A civil war now 
ensued, which lasted four years ; the rebels with him marched 
through the counties of Gloucester, Oxford, and AVilts, Edward, 
unable to oppose them, retaliated on the country of the East 
Angles, but soon thought proper to withdi'aw his army, loaded 
with booty, before the approach of the rebels. But the Kentish 
men, greedy of more spoil, remained behind, in defiance of 
orders, and were attacked by the East Angles. They resisted 
most valiantly, but at last were obliged to retire, after slaying a 
large number of the rebels, including Ethelwold himself. The 
consequence was the renewal of the acknowledgment of the 
supremacy of Wessex by Guthrum II. of East Anglia. 

"With the assistance of his sister, Edward attempted to secure 
himself from further molestation by the erection of numerous 
stone castles. These castles, which seem to have been built on 
a new and better plan than any before erected, became also in 
many instances the nucleus from which towns sprang ; for laws 
were passed creating them markets, and .forbidding bargains to 
be made without the walls. The to^vns of Chester, Warwick, 
Buckingham, Towcaster, and Maldon were fortified. 

This king gained two victories : at Telmesford and Maldon, 
and on the death of Ethelfled, King of Mercia, that country, 
both Anglian and Danish, submitted to his authority. The 
Welsh kings swore allegiance to him, and even the kings of 
Scotland and Strathclyde acknowledged Edward as their " father 
and lord." He was thus, in fact, master of all England. 

Edward married Eadgafu, a shepherd's daughter. By her 



925.] ATHELSTAN. 17 

he Iiad Athelstan, said to be illegitimate, Edmund, and Edred, 
who all succeeded to the throne, and three daughters. One, 
Elfrida, married Charles the Simple, of France ; the second, 
Edgiva, Hugh the Great, Count of Paris ; and the third, Elgifa, 
Otto I., Emperor of Germany. 

Edward died in the iiftj-lifth year of, his age, the twenty- 
fourth of his reign, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Athel- 
stan, who, although illegitimate, being of an age and capacity 
iitted for government, obtained the preference to Edward's 
younger children, who were too young to rule a nation so much 
exposed to foreign invasion and domestic troubles. 

Contemporary Hltlers. — Scotland : Donald III., Constantine 
III. ; France : Charles III. (the Simple). 



Athelstan — A.D. 925-940. 

Athelstan, a natural son of Edward the Elder, was born 
about the A'ear 885. He had no sooner ascended the throne 
than a league was formed against him. The leader of tlie 
conspiracy, one Elfred, a nobleman of considerable power, 
being seized on suspicion, denied the charge, and in order to 
free himself from the imputation, offered to swear to his inno- 
cence before the Pope, whose person it was supposed contained 
such superior sanctity, that no one could presume to take a false 
oath in his presence and hope to escape the vengeance of 
heaven. The king accepted the condition, and Elfred was con- 
ducted to Rome, where he made the oath required before John, 
who then filled the papal chair. He had no sooner pronounced 
the fatal words than he fell into convulsions, and died three 
daj's after. The king, believing the guilt of tlie prisoner estab- 
lished, confiscated his estates. 

The terror of Athelstan's name had left him the undisputed 
dominion of the island, with the exception of Xorthumbria. 
The Danish chieftain of that district, Sihtric, acknowledged 
his supremacy, but died in the- year 926, and his two sons, 
Aulaf and Guthfric, assumed the government without the 
king's consent. They were soon expelled ; the former fled to 



18 EDMUND L [935-940, 

Ireland, the latter to Scotland, where he was received and pro- 
tected by Constantine the king. Athelstan demanded that he 
shonld be given np, wdiich Constantine promised to do ; but, 
detesting such treachery, advised Guthfric to escape, which he 
did. Athelstan, resenting Constantine's behavior, entered Scot- 
land with an army and ravaged the country with impunity, 
reducing the Scots to such distress that the king was content to 
preserve his crown by making submission and doing homage 
for it. 

Athelstan assisted Louis IV. of France during the usurpation 
of Rudolph, all of which time he lived at the English court. 
On the death of the usurper, the states of France sent deputies 
to Athelstan, who took the oath of allegiance to Louis, and 
with him i-eturned to France, and when that young king was 
disturbed by his great vassals, an alliance was entered into be- 
tween France and England. Historians say that this is the first 
record in our history of any league between France and Eng- 
land, and of any treaty by which these two kingdoms concerned 
themselves in each other's welfare. 

Athelstan died at Gloucester, October 27, 040, in the fifty- 
sixth 3'ear of his age, and the sixteenth year of his reign. He 
was never married, and was succeeded by his legitimate brother 
Edmund. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland: Constantine III. ; France: 
Charles III. (the Simple), Louis IV. 



Edmund I. — A.D. 940-946. 

Edmund, eldest legitimate son of Edward the Elder and his 
wife, Eadgafu, and grandson of Alfred the Great, ascended the 
throne on the 27th day of October, 940. He was born in the 
year 921. On his accession he met with disturbances from the 
restless Xorthumbrians, who neglected no opportunity of break- 
ing into rebellion ; but marching suddenly with his forces into 
their country, he so overawed the rebels that they endeavored 
to appease him by the most humble submissions. In order to 
give him the surer pledge of their obedience, they offered to 



910-946] EDRED. 19 

embrace Christianity, a religion which tlie English Danes had 
frequently professed when reduced to difficulties, but which for 
that reason they regarded as a badge of servitude, and shook off 
as soou as opportunity offered. Edmund, trusting little to their 
sincerity in this forced submission, used tlie precaution of re- 
moving the Five-burgers from the towns of Mercia in which 
they had been allowed to settle, because they instigated the 
rebellion. 

He conquered Cumberland and Galway, and conferred that 
territory on Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition that he 
should do him homage and protect the northern part of England 
from the incursions of the Danes. 

Edmund, though young, was a brave and prudent ruler. His 
reign, terminated l^y his violent death, was short. One day, 
while celebrating a festival in the count}^ of Gloucester, an out- 
law whom he had banished presumptuously took a seat among 
the guests. Edmund, discovering the intruder, ordered his re- 
moval. The man resisted, the enraged king rushed at him, 
seized him by the hair, and dashed him to the ground. At the 
same instant the outlaw drew a dagger and plunged it into the 
breast of the ill-fated king, who instantly died. The assassin 
was cut to pieces on the spot. 

Edmund was murdered May 26, 946, in the twenty-fifth year 
of his age and sixth of his reign. He left two sons, Edwy and 
Edgar, who were young and incapable of ruling. He was suc- 
ceeded by his only surviving brother, Edred. 

Contemporary Rulers.— Scotland : Constantine IH., Mal- 
colm I. ; France : Louis lY. 



Edred — A.D. 946-955. 

Edeed, youngest son of Edward the Elder, and his Avife Ead- 
gafu, was born in the year 923. He was of feeble health, and 
of a confiding disposition. His first adviser was the Chancellor 
Turketul, who after a few jems devoted himself to religion, 
and became iVhIiot of Croyland, and was succeeded l)yDunstan, 
Abbot of Glastonbury, a man of great power and infiuence, who 



20 EDRED. [ 946-955. 

for tliirtj years exercised great control over the government, 
Dnnstan became chief director of the public affairs of the 
country ; he was, in the words of one of his biographers, " king 
and ruler of the king." He was the keeper of the treasury, 
and most probably director of the wars. During this reign, 
Xorthunibria, which had revolted, was subdued ; and Edrecl, 
having devastated the land, changed its form of government, 
and reduced it from a kingdom to an earldom. The sickly king 
styled himself the sovei'eign of " the fourfold empire of the 
Anglo-Saxons and Northumbrians, Pagans, and Britons." 

From this title we learn that some of the dominions were held 
under Danish chieftains, who were still unconverted, and were 
denominated Pagans. 

Dunstan was' offered the See of Winchester, which he refused, 
as he was planning a revolution in England, the establishment 
of monastic rule, and the supremacy of the Papal power. The 
celibacy of the clergy was the leading principle to be contended 
for, in making the churcli Romish instead of National. 

Previous to this, the monks were a species of secular priests, 
M'ho intermingled with the world, and endeavored to make 
themselves useful. They were employed in the education of 
the youth of the country, and had the disposal of their own 
time. They were not subject to any order, had made no vows, 
and retained the choice, without quitting the convent, of either 
a married or single life. 

Dunstan, now taking advantage of the confidence reposed in 
him by the king, imported into England a new Order of Bene- 
dictine Monks, who much changed the order of ecclesiastical 
affairs, and excited the most violent commotions. They took on 
themselves the vow of celibacy, excluding themselv^es entirely 
from the world ; renounced all claim to liberty, and made a 
merit of most inviola])le chastity. They affected the greatest 
austerity of life and manners, and were particularly vehement 
against the dissolute lives of the secular clergy, their rivals. 

The latter were numerous and rich, and, possessed of ecclesi- 
astical dignities, defended themselves with vigor, and endeav- 
ored to retaliate. 

The progress of the monks, which had now become consider- 



9r)5-58] EDVVY. 21 

able, was somewliat retarded by the death of the king, lie died 
at Frome, November 23, 955, in the thirtj-seeond year of liis 
age, and the nintii of his reign, without issue, and was succeeded 
by his nephew Ed\Yy. 

CoNTEMPORAEY RuLEEs. — Scotland : Malcolm I., Indulf ; 
France : Louis IV., Lothaire. 

Edwy— A.D. 955-958. 

Edwy, eldest son of Edmund the First, was born in the year 
93,9.' He was surnamed the Fair, and was endowed with a 
splendid figure, and gave great pi'omise of a happy and prosper- 
ous reign. In the destruction of that happy promise, and in his 
prematm-e death, we have a tragedy which has made the name 
of Dunstan hateful with all by whom the piteous tale of " Edw}- 
and Elgiva " has been received with undoubting faith. 

The coronation of the young king followed quickly his acces- 
sion. His Witan had taken the oath of allegiance to him, and 
before the altar he had taken the oath of supremacy. The coro- 
nation feast came next. The king sat at the banquet, sur- 
rounded by timid friends and suspicious enemies. He had taken 
the oath that he would hold God's Church and all the Christian 
people of his realm in true peace. But at that banquet there 
were ministers of God's Church who bore toward each other the 
most deadly hostility. 

At this coronation feast the king retired early, as was the in- 
variable custom at these Saxon banquets. There was excessive 
use of wine, and the passions of men were proportionately ex- 
cited. The assembly murmured, with some reason, at the ab- 
sence of the king. Dunstan, and Odo, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, went forth, and, bursting into Edwy's private chamber, 
found him in the company of Elgiva and her mother Ethelgiva. 
The abbot seized the youth and forcibly dragged him back to 
the hall. It has been called an act of sudden passion, but it 
appears an act of policy. The authority of the abbot was tot- 
tering, and he, for this reason, asserted his power before the 
assembled nobles. 

Edwy, though young, found an opportunity for taking re- 



22 EDWY. [95a-.:s. 

A'enge for tins public insult. The following' day he questioned 
Dunstan concerning the administration of the treasuiy during 
the reign of his predecessor, and when that minister refused to 
account to him he accused him of malfeasance in office and 
banished him the kingdom. 

Edwy, unfortunatel}^, at the commencement of his reign, got 
engaged in a controversy with the monks, whose rage nothing 
could mitigate, and who piu'sued his memory with the same un- 
relenting spirit of vengeance which they exercised against him 
during his short reign. Ke had nuirried his cousin Elgiva, a 
beautiful princess, against the advice of his gravest councillors, 
and the remonstrances of his highest ecclesiastics, because she 
was within the degree of aflftnity prohibited by the canon law. 

As the austerity affected by the monks made them particu- 
larly violent on this occasion, Edwy entertained a strong feeling 
against them, and seemed determined not to second their pro- 
jects of expelling the secular clergy from all the convents and pos- 
sessing themselv^es of those rich establishments. War was there- 
fore declared between the king and the mordcs ; tlie former soon 
found reason to repent his provoking such dangerous enemies. 

The Dunstan party was not inactive during his banishment ; 
they filled the public mhid with panegyrics of his sanctity ; they 
exclaimed against the iiiipiety of the king and queen, and hav- 
ing poisoned the minds of the people, proceeded to acts of vio- 
lence against the royal authority. 

Archbishop Odo sent a party of soldiers into the palace, seized 
the queen and branded her with a red-hot iron on the face, in 
order to destroy her beauty, and then sent her by force to Ire- 
land, there to remain in perpetual exile. 

Edwy, iinding it in vain to resist, was obliged to consent to a 
divorce, which was pronounced by Odo. A greater calamity 
still awaited the unhappy Elgiva. After some time, that ami- 
able princess, being partly cured of her wound and the scars 
somewhat obliterated, returned to England, and was iiying to the 
embraces of the king, whom she still regarded as her husband, 
vdien she fell into the hands of a party sent by Odo to intercept 
her. Xothing but her death could give the archbishop security 
or satisfy the monks, and the most cruel death was adopted to 



958.] EDGAR. 23 

satiate tlieir vengeance. She was hamstrung, and expired at 
Gloucester a few days afterward in the greatest agony. 

The English peoj^le, blinded M'ith superstition, instead of 
being shocked with this inhumanity, declared that the punish- 
ment of Edwy and his queen was a just judgment for their dis- 
solute contempt for ecclesiastical law. They even went into 
rebellion against their king, and placed his brother Edgar at 
their head, a boy fifteen years of age, who was chosen king of 
the Mercians ; but Edwy governed Wessex and Kent. 

That it might not be doubted at whose instigation the revolt 
was undertaken, Dunstan returned to England, and took upon 
himself the government of Edgar and his party. lie was then 
installed Bishop of Worcester, then of London, and on the death 
of Odo created Archbishop of Canterbury. He was even canon- 
ized by the See of Rome — one of the many saints who disgrace 
the Romish calendar. 

Meanwhile the unhappy Edwy was exconnnunicated and 
pursued with unrelenting vengeance. Rut his death, which 
happened soon after, freed his enemies from further inquietude, 
and gave Edgar peaceable possession of the whole kingdom. 

Edwy died October 1, 958, as supposed, by violence. He left 
no issue. 

CoNTEMPOEAEY RuLEKS.— Scotland : Indulf ; France: Lothaire. 

^ Edgar— A. D. 958-975. 

Edgar, youngest son of Edmund L, and brother of the late 
king, was born in the year 942. 

His sixteen years' reign were years of peace, with the excep- 
tion of an invasion of Wales, to enforce the payment of tribute. 
The countr}^, too, was unmolested by the rovei's of the Xorth. 
He soon' developed an excellent capacity in the administration 
of affairs, but he was always under ecclesiastical rule. 

His personal conduct was bad, selfish, and sensual. He 
showed no aversion to war, and made the wisest preparations 
against invaders ; and by a vigor and foresight was enabled, 
without suffering insults, to indulge in his inclination toward 
peace, and employ himself in the improvement of his kingdom. 



24: > EDGAR. [958-060. 

He maintained a body of disciplined troops, and quartered 
them throughout the country, where they were most needed. 
He built and equipped a powerful navy, and formed it into 
squadrons, encircling the land. 

The foreign Danes were therefore prevented from invading 
a country so well protected, and the King of Scotland was 
forced to pay tribute. 

Edgar maintained his authority and preserved tlie public 
peace by paying court to Dunstan and the monks, who had 
placed him upon the throne. He favored all their schemes for 
deposing the secular clergy from the monasteries, expelling the 
married ones from the country, calling them thieves and in- 
truders living with concubines ; he supplied their places with 
the new order of Benedictine monks, building lifty new monas- 
teries, and repairing the old ones; and in consequence was a 
■^ great favorite with all the monkish historians. His character, 
nevertheless, was bad ; he violated every law, human and di- 
vine. He broke into a convent in Wilton, and carried olf Edi- 
tha, a nun, by force, committing violence upon her person, and 
afterward made her his mistress. He was ordered by Dunstan 
to put her away, and, as a penance, to abstain from wearing his 
crown for seven years. One day he lodged at the house of a 
nobleman at Andover, who had a beautiful daughter, and being 
influenced by passion determined to possess her. As he had no 
time for courtship, he went directly to her mother, and desired 
that the young lady should pass the night with him. The 
mother, a virtuous woman, determined not to allow her daughter 
to be dishonored, but knowing the violence of the king's temper, 
thought it better to agree to his demand, and then deceive him. 
She therefore found a waiting-maid willing to be substituted, 
who agreed to steal into the king's chamber after all the house- 
hold had retii-ed to rest, with orders to leave before daybreak, 
which she attenq:)ted to do, ]>ut Edgar, being inHamecl by his 
night's enjoyment, refused to allow her to leave. The maid, 
ElUeda, trusting to her own charms, and to the love she hoped 
slie had inspired in him, readily consented to remain. The re- 
turn of light discovered the deceit, but he had passed the night 
so much to his satisfaction, that he expressed no displeasure to 



960-70.] EDGAR. 25 

the old lady on account of the deception, and Elfleda became 
his favorite mistress, and maintained her ascendancy over him 
until his marriage with Elfrida. 

The marriage with that lady — Ethelfieda his wife being dead 
— was more singular and criminal. He had heard of the great 
beauty of Elfrida, daughter of Olger, Earl of Devonshire, and 
sent his favorite, the Earl of Athelwold, to ascertain wdiether 
the frequent panegyrics which he heard of her were true. lie- 
flecting on the noble birth of the lady, he resolved, if he found 
her charms answer to her fame, to obtain possession of her, if 
by no other means, then, on honorable terms. 

Athelwold, having performed his joui-ney, and on an intro- 
duction to the lady found the accounts of her came far short of 
her real merit, was himself captured by her charms and de- 
termined to win her. On his leturn he reported to the king 
that riches and her high position were the only grounds for the 
admiration paid her, and tliat she would be overlooked if of 
inferior station. When, after a sutRcient time, he had by this 
deceit diverted the king's purpose, he one day turned the con- 
versation on Elfrida, and stated, that though the pai-entage and 
fortune had not produced on him, as on others, any illusion as 
to her beauty, still he thought it would be a suitable nnitch for 
him, and by her birth and riches compensate for her homeliness 
of person. If the king gave his consent he would make a pro- 
posal on his own behalf. 

Edgar, pleased to be able to assist his favorite's fortune, not 
only consented, but offered to forward his suit by a recom- 
mendation to her parents. 

Letters were wa-itten by the king ; Athelwold made the 
journey, and was accepted, and soon made happy by the mar- 
riage. Dreading, however, detection, he employed every pre- 
tence for keeping her at a distance from the king ; but as royal 
favorites generally have enemies about a court, some of them 
informed Edgar of the truth. But before he would execute 
vengeance on Athelwold's treachery, he resolved to satisfy him- 
self with his own eyes. He told the earl he intended paying 
him a visit at his castle, and make the acquaintance of his 
newly married wife. As Athelwold could not refuse the honor, 



23 EDGAR, [970-75. 

he craved leave to go before a few hours, and prepare for his 
reception. 

On his arrival at his castle he acknowledged the whole matter 
to his wife, and prayed tliat if she had any regard for his life, 
to conceal as many of her charms as possible by dress, and in 
her manner to the king. 

Elfrida promised to comply, but determined to act otherwise, 
as she deemed herself little beholding to Athelwold for depriv- 
ing her of a crown. She tiierefore appeared before the king, 
with all tlie advantages of dress, and with her most engaging 
manners, and at once excited in his bosom the most passionate 
love toward her, and the most furious desire for revenge against 
her husband. He knew, however, how to dissemble, and waited 
his opportunity. 

He recpiested Athelwold to accompany him into a wood, on 
pretence of hunting, and waiting his opportunity when they 
were alone, there stabbed him to death. He immediately re- 
turned to the castle, told Elfrida what he had done, and shortly 
after married her. 

An important incident of this reign was the extirpation of 
wolves out of England. The king took great pains in hunting 
and pursuing those ravenous animals, and when he found they 
had taken shelter on the Welsh mountains and foi-ests, changed 
the Welsh tribute of money to that of three hundred wolves' 
heads per annum, which induced such diligence in hunting 
them that they were soon extirpated. 

He also gave encouragement to foreigners to visit his court 
and settle in England ; and we are told they imported all the 
vices of their respective countries, and contributed to corrupt 
the simple natives. 

Edgar marjfiecl, first, Ethelfleda, the -mother of Edward ; 
second, Elfrida, mother of Ethelred. He died July 8, 075, in 
the thirty-second year of his age and the seventeenth of his 
reign, and was succeeded by his son Edwai-d. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland: Indulf, Duff us, Cullen, 
Kenneth IH. ; France : Lothaire ; Emperors of the West : Otho 
the Great, Otho 11. 



975.] EDWARD THE MARTYR. 27 



Edward (the Martyr)— A. D. 975-979. 

Edward — surnamed the Martyr — eldest son of Edgar and his 
first qneen Ethellleda, was born in the year 902, and was conse- ' 
qnently in the thirteenth year of his age at his father's death. 
Etheh-ed, the son of Elfrida, was only seven. The question of 
the succession to the vacant throne was innnediately raised. A 
strong party of the nobles demanded that the choice should be 
determined by election, particularly as Elfrida had formed a 
powerful faction in favor of her own son Ethelred. 

But the title of Edward was supported by many advantages, 
and by the last will of his father. He was approaching man's 
estate, and Dunstan espoused his cause. The principal nobility 
dreaded the imperious temper of Elfrida, and were averse to 
her son's governmsnt, which would enlarge her authority, and 
probably put her in possession of the regency. 

Dunstan, by one of his vigorous movements, quelled the dis- 
pute, and, presenting Edwai'd to the assembled Thanes at Win- 
chester, consecrated him on the spot, and the whole kingdom, 
without further dispute, submitted to him. It was a matter of 
the greatest importance to Dunstan and the monks to place on 
the throne a king favorable to their cause ; and the married 
and secular clergy, who had been ejected from livings in the 
previous reign, regarded Elfrida as their patroness, and sup- 
ported Ethelred. The strife among the clergy still divided the 
kingdom, and in order to settle this controversy, several synods 
were suunnoned, consisting partly of ecclesiastical members and 
partly of lay nobility. The monks were generally able to pre- 
vail, though contrary to the secret washes, if not the declared 
inclination of the leadiug men of the nation. 

In one synod, Dunstan, finding the majority of votes against 
him, declared he had at that moment received an immediate 
revelation on behalf of the monks, when the assembly, overawed 
by the populace, proceeded no further. In another synod a 
voice proceeded from a crucifix, and informed the assembly 
that the establishment of the monks was founded on the will of 
heaven, and could not be opposed without impiety. But the 



28 EDWARD THE MARTYR. [070 78. 

miracle performed in tlie third synod was still more alarming to 
its members, as the floor of the hall where the assembly met 
sunk of a sudden, and most of the members were either seri- 
ously injured or killed by the fall. It was afterward remarked 
that Dunstan had prevented the king from attending the synod 
that day, and that the beam under which his own chair stood 
was the only one that did not give way ; but these circum- 
stances, instead of begetting suspicion of connivance, were re- 
garded as proofs of the interposition of divine providence on 
behalf of the favorites of heaven. 

Edward lived four years after his accession. Nothing memor- 
able occurred during his reign; his death alone was tragical. 
Though his stepmother opposed his succession, and raised a fac- 
tion against him, he always showed her marks of his regard, 
and expressed on all occasions the most tender affection toward 
Ills brother. 

The innocent boy was to be sacrificed as a party victnn by 
those opposed to the monastic do.ninition ; and his stepmother, 
who hated him for standing in the way of her son's elevation, 
was implicated in the conspiracy. 

At Corfe Castle, a royal manor, resided Elfrida and Ethelred. 
Edward had been hunting at Wareham, and became separated 
from his attendants, and, being in the neighborhood of the 
castle, determined to pay his stepmother a visit for rest and re- 
freshment, lie thereby presented an opportunity she had long 
wished for. After his visit, having mounted, a stirrup cup was 
brought him ; he was raising it to his lips, when a servant of 
Elfrida's approached and stabbed him in the back. He spurred 
his steed from the fatal porch ; he fainted and fell ; was dragged 
in the stirrups, traced by his blood, and when found was dead. 
The youth and iimocence of this prince, and his tragical death, 
excited such compassion among his people, that they believed 
miracles to be wrought at his tomb, and they gave him the name 
of " The Martyr." 

In his lifetime he was endowed with a most amiable disposi- 
tion and great innocence of manner. His intentions were 
always pure, and he was incapable of entertaining any suspicions 
against others. 



978.] ETHELRED II. 29 

Edward was not married, and died Marcli 18, 978, in the 
seventeenth year of his age and fourth of his reign, and was 
succeeded by his half-brother Etheh'ed. 

CoNTEirpoRARY RuLERS. — Scotland : Kenneth III. ; France : 
Lothaire ; Emperor of the West : Otho JII. 

Ethelred II.— A.D. 978-1016. 

Ethelred — surnamed the Unready — youngest son of Edgar by 
his second queen, Elfrida, was born in the year 069. He as- 
cended the throne on the death of his brother, March IS, 978. 

Mahnesbury says of him that, " Obtaining the kingdom, lie 
occupied, rather than governed it, for thirty-se\^en years. The 
career of his life was cruel from the beginning ; in the murder 
to which he gave his concurrence he was cruel." He was only 
eleven years old when the murder of his brother took place. 
Dunstan hated him ; and when, as primate, he placed the ci-own 
upon his head, he pronounced this curse : " Even as, by the 
death of thy brother, thou didst aspire to the kingdom, hear the 
decree of Heaven. The sin of thy wicked mother, and of her 
accomplices, shall rest upon thy head, and such evils shall fall 
upon the English as they have never yet suffered, from the days 
when they first came into the Isle of Britain, even unto the 
present time." 

As Edward was murdered by the cruel policy of one party, so 
was Ethelred inducted into an unhappy reign by this vindic- 
tive prophecy of the chief of the other party. 

The freedom which England had so long enjoyed from the 
depredations of the Danes was due partly to their employment 
in their new settlements in Normandy and the north of France, 
but more especially from the vigor and warlike spirit of the late 
kings, who preserved the kingdom in a state of defence by sea 
and by land, and either prevented or repulsed the invaders. 
But now the reigning king was a minor, and a new generation 
of men had sprung up in the northern regions wlio wanted em- 
ployment that would bring them good returns ; but before they 
cared to try any important entei'prise against England they de- 
termined to make a small one by way of trial. They therefore 



30 ETHELRED IT. [980-93. 

commenced witli seven ships hy a descent on Soutliampton. 
Tliey ravaged the conntiy, enriched themselves by spoil, and 
departed withont molestation. 

In the following year they made a like attempt on the west 
coast, and met wdth like success. 

The invaders having found affairs in England very different 
from what they were, encouraged their countrymen to assemble 
a greater force and to hope for more considerable advantages. 
In the year 991 they assembled a large fleet and landed on the 
coast of Essex ; they took Ipswich and advanced into the coun- 
try. They were met by Britlmoth at Maldon, who foiled their 
efforts to advance for fourteen days, but was in the end beaten 
and slain. 

Ethelred, instead of rousing his people to defend their honor 
and their homes, listened to the advice of Sii'icius, Archbishop 
of (Canterbury, who was seconded by many of the degenerate 
nobles, and purchased their departure from the country by pay- 
ing them ten thousand pounds of silver, which sum was col- 
lected from the people, and was afterward permanently estab- 
lished under tlie name of Danegeld. This shameful expedient 
was attended with the success which might be expected, as the 
Danes, the following year, appeared off the eastern coast in the 
hopes of subduing a people who defended themselves with their 
money, which invited assailants, instead of their arms, which re- 
pelled them. 

The English, sensible of their folly, iitted out a fleet able to 
give battle to the enemy, but owing to the treachery of Alfric, 
Duke of Mercia, its commander, who deserted to the enemy, 
they were disappointed in their efforts. Ethelred, enraged at 
the duke's perfidy, seized his son Alfgar and oi-dered his eyes to 
be put out. 

The Xorthmen, now well acquainted with the defenceless 
condition of England, made a powerful descent upon her shores 
in the year 993, under the command of Sweyn, King of Den- 
mai'k, and Olaf, King of Norway. They sailed up the llum- 
ber and spread destruction on both sides that river. A powerful 
army was assembled to oppose them, and a general engagement 
followed ; but the English were deserted in the batth^ by their 



995-1013.] ETHELRED II. C'l 

three principal leaders, men of the Danish race, Frena, Frithe- 
gist, and Godwin. 

Encouraged by this success, the invaders ventured to attack 
the centre of the kingdom, and entering the Thames with 
ninety-four ships, laid seige to London, and threatened it with 
total destruction, but the citizens made a bold defence and re- 
pulsed them with great loss. In order to revenge themselves, 
they laid waste Essex, Sussex, and Hampshire, and, having ob- 
tained horses, were spreading devastation throughout tlie coun- 
try, when their forbearance was again purchased by the pay- 
ment of sixteen thousand pounds of silver, on receipt of which 
they left the kingdom. Those incursions were continued in a 
less degree until the year 998, when they caused great devasta- 
tion, and again in 1001 a further sum of twenty-four thousand 
pounds of silver was paid, and they only left because they re- 
ceived greater inducements, being invited by their countryman, 
the Duke of Normandy, to assist him against Robert, King of 
France. 

Ethelred and his advisers then determined to rid themselves 
of all Danes found in the country by a general massacre. Secret 
orders were sent out to every town and county, and on Novem- 
ber 13, 1002, the festival of St. Brice, multitudes of every age 
and sex were mercilessly butchered. Even Grinilda, sister to 
the King of Denmark, who had married Eai'l Parling and liad 
embraced Christianity, was put to death. 

Sweyn, King of Denmark, wlio only wanted a pretence to 
invade England, soon appeared on the coast with a powerful 
army to take full revenge for the slaughter of his countrymen, 
and from that time gave the country no rest, devastating fi-om 
Exeter to the heart of Wiltshire, burning cities and villages. 
The Eno;lish made vigorous resistance, but all their efforts were 
frustrated by the treachery of the generals in command, and 
famine, owing to a bad season and failure of the crops, added 
to the miseries of the people. The king had again to submit to 
the infamy of purchasing a precarious peace from the enemy by 
the payment of thirty thousand pounds. 

In the year 1013 Sweyn openly declared his intention of con- 
quering England. lie landed at Gainsborough, and marched 



32 ETHELRED II. [1013. 

trinmphantlv to the -u-alls of London. Tiepnlsed from the capi- 
tal, he marched to Batli, where he was proclaimed King of Eng- 
land and was recognized by the Thanes of Wessex, Mercia, and 
]^orthnmbria. 

The imbecile Ethelred was little able to repair the misfor- 
tunes of the country ; the treachery of Alfric, Edric, and others 
of the leading nobility, frustrated every plan for future defence; 
the navy became disconcerted, discouraged, and divided, and 
was at last scattered and had to take refuge. It is impossible 
to relate particularly all the miseries to which the English were 
thenceforth exposed. We hear of nothing but sacking and 
burning towns, and devastation of the open country, the ap- 
pearance of the enemy in every quarter of the kingdom, and 
their diligence in discovering any corner which had not been 
ransacked previously. 

The only expedient they could find was to buy a new peace 
from the Danes, by the payment of forty-eight thousand pounds, 
but which did not bring them the repose which lhe ; expected, 
for Thurkill, who for tliree years had been carrying on a preda- 
tory war on his own account, levied a new contribution of eight 
thousand pounds on the county of Kent alone, and murdered 
the Archbishop of Canterbury- 

Ethelred, equally afraid of the violence of the enemy and the 
treachery of his own people, tied into Normandy, whither he 
had previously sent his queen, Emma, and his two sons, Alfred 
and Edmund. Richard, Duke of Normandy, received his un- 
happy guests with a generosity that does honor to his memory. 
Ethelred had not been long in Normandy when he heard of the 
death of Sweyn, who expired at Gainsborough before he had 
time to establish himself in his newly acquired dominions. 

The English prelates and nobility, taking advantage of this 
event, sent over a deputation to Normandy, inviting Ethelred 
to return, and expressing a desire to be again governed by a 
native prince, intimating their hopes, that being now tutored 
by experience, he would avoid those errors which had been 
attended with such misfortunes to himself and people. But 
the misconduct of Ethelred was incurable, and on resuming the 
government, he developed the same incapacity, indolence, cow- 



1016.] ETHELRED IT. 33 

ardice, and credulity which had so often exposed liini to the 
insults of his enemies. 

His son-in-law, Edric, notwithstanding his treasons, retained 
much influence over him, and instilled into his mind jealousy 
against Siegfort and Morcar, two of the chief nobility of Mercia. 
He allured them into his house and there murdered them, and 
Ethelred participated in the infamy by confiscating their estates, 
and thrusting the widow of Siegfort into a convent. On a visit 
which was paid her by Prince Edmund, the king's eldest son, 
she inspired him with so violent an affection, that he released 
her from the convent and soon after married her. 

Meantime the English found in Canute, the son and successor 
of Sweyn, an enemy no less terrible than the prince from whom 
death had so lately delivered them. He ravaged the eastern 
coast with fury, but soon had to make a voyage to Denmark on 
urgent affairs there ; but after a time returned and continued 
his depredations on the southern coast. He attacked the coun- 
ties of Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset, where an army was assem- 
bled under Prince Edmund and Duke Edric. The latter con- 
tinued his perfidious machinations, and failing to get Edmund 
in his power, deserted to tlie enemy. 

Edmund was not disconcerted, but assembling all the force of 
England, was in a condition to give battle. The king remained 
in London, pretending sickness, but really fearing his people 
would give him into the hands of the enemy to buy their peace, 
while the army was calling aloud for their sovereign to march 
at their head against the Danes. 

Edmund, deprived of regular supplies, retired to London, 
determined there to maintain to the last the small remains of 
English liberty. 

He there found everything in confusion by the death of the 
king, who had expired on April 23, 1016, in the forty-seventh 
year of his age, and the thirty-eighth of his reign. Ethelred 
married, first, Ethelreda, by whom he had Edmund and Edwy ; 
second,- Emma, sister of Richard, Duke of Normandy, by whom 
he had Alfred and Edward, who were sent to Normandy. 

Contemporary Rulkrs. — Scotland : Kenneth HI., Constan- 
tine I v., Grime, Malcolm 11. ; France : Lothaire, Louis V., 
3 



34: EDMUND II. (IRONSIDES). [lOlfi. 

Hugli Capet, Robert the Pious ; Emperors of the West : Otho 
III., Hemy II. 

Edmund II. (Ironsides) — A.D, 1016. 

Edmuxd — suriianied Ironsides, from his stiirdj valor — was the 
eldest son of Ethelred bj his first queen, Ethelreda, and was 
born Xovember 30, 900. 

He possessed courage and ability. Even befoi-e liis accession 
he was recognized as the champion of the English cause against 
the Danes. On the death of Ethelred, the citizens of London 
proclaimed Edmund king, while a council sitting at South- 
ampton, which had previously decreed that every Danish king 
should be an outlaw, took the oaths to Canute. There was in- 
stant preparations for war on both sides. Canute had a large 
fleet in the Thames, and immediately besieged London. Ed- 
mund marched into Wessex, and was there accepted as king. 
He raised an army, and finding that disaffection had crept in 
among the nobility and the prelates, thought the best expedient 
for stopping the farther progress of these fatal evils was to lead 
his army instantly into the field, and • to employ them against 
the common enemy. He raised the siege of London ; battle 
after battle ensued, and after meeting with some success at 
Gillingham, he prepared himself to decide, in one general en- 
gagement, the fate of his crown, and would have succeeded but 
for the traitors who had ruined his father. 

Edmund met the enemy at Scoerston, in Gloucestershire, 
commanded by Canute and Duke Edric. Fortune, in the be- 
ginning of the day, declared for him, but Edric, having cut off 
the head of one Osmei*, whose countenance resembled Edmund's, 
fixed it on a spear, and carried it through the ranks in triumph, 
calling aloud to the English that " it was time to fly ; for, be- 
hold ! the head of your sovereign." And though Edmund, 
observing tlie consternation of his troops, took off his helmet 
and showed himself to them, the utmost he could gain by his 
activity and valor was to leave the battle undecided. 

Edric now took a surer method to ruin him, by pretending to 
join his side, and as Edmund knew his power, and probably 



1016.] EDMUND II. (IRONSIDES). g5 

knew no other of the chief nobility in whom he conld repose 
more confidence, was obliged, notwithstanding his repeated per- 
fidy, to give him a considerable command in the army. 

A battle was soon after fought at Ossington in Essex, where 
Edric, deserting to the enemy in the beginning of the day, oc- 
casioned the total defeat of the English, followed by a great 
slanghter among the nobility. The indefatigable Edmund, 
however, had still resources. Assembling a new army at Glou- 
cester, he was again in a position to dispute the field, but the 
English and Danish nobility, equally harassed with these con- 
vulsions, obliged their kings to compromise, and divide the 
kingdom by treaty between them. 

Canute reserved to himself the northern division, consisting 
of Mercia, East Anglia, and jS^orthumbria, which he had en- 
tirely subdued. The southern parts were left to Edmund, who 
only sm'vived the treaty about a month. lie was murdered at 
Oxford by two of his chamberlains, accomplices of Edric, who 
by that means made way for Canute to the crown of all Eng- 
land. 

Edmund married Algitha, widow of Siegfort, a noble of 
Mercia, by whom he had two sons, Edward and Edmund, but 
neither succeeded to the throne. He died i^ovember 30, 1010, 
after a reign of seven mouths, in the twenty-first year of his 
age. 

CoNTEMPOEARY RuLERs. — Scotlaud *. Malcolni II. ; France : 
Eobert the Pious ; Emperor of the West : Henry 11. 




THE DANISH RULE. 



A.D. 1016-1041. 



At the decline of the Roman Empire, tlie Danes, Swedes, 
and Norwegians were generally known as Kormans, afterward 
as Scandinavians, and they began to make themselves known to 
and dreaded l)y the more sonthern nations. Denmark was then 
divided into a nnmber of petty states, inhabited by a fierce and 
warlike people whose principal occupation was piracy. Gorra 
the Old, gi-andson of Sigurd Snake Eye, collected the several 
provinces into one aggregate body and formed the kingdom of 
Denmark in 882, called after Den, the first ruler of a province 
before the coming of our Saviour, and mark, a place of settle- 
ment. A few years before his accession to the throne the 
promulgation of Christianity was commenced, but met with 
great opposition from the warlike disposition and rude manners 
of the people and the persecution of the king. Harold, his son, 
succeeded him in the year 991, and was bapfized and became a 
Christian, which excited the resentment of his pagan subjects, 
and they formed a rebellion against him, which was headed by 
his own son Sweyn, who aspired to his father's throne. The 
king's army was defeated, and the king himself assassinated by 



1016-20.] CANUTE. 37 

the orders of Sweyn, by one Palnatoke, while he was walking in 
a wood, and Sweyn, generally called Split-Beard, from the 
manner of wearing his beard, ascended the throne. 

Canute — A.D. 1016-1035. 

Canute, son of Sweyn, King of Denmark,.grandson of Thyra, 
granddaughter of Alfred the Great, was born in Denmark in 
994. 

He was now sole king of England, and he called npon the 
Witan to annul the diyision of the kingdom by declaring that 
Edmund had reseryed no right of succession, and that he had 
appointed him guardian of his children. This guardianship 
consisted in his outlawino; them. He sent the two young 
princes, Edward and Edmund, to the King of Sweden, with in- 
structions to free him, by their death, from all further anxiety. 
That monarch was too generous to comply with this request, 
but, being afraid of a quai-rel by protecting them, he sent them 
to Solomon, King of Hungary, to be educated at his court. Ed- 
ward was afterward married to the king's sister, but he dying 
without issue, Solomon gaye his sister-in-law, Agitha, niece of 
the Emperor Henry H., in marriage to Edmund, the younger 
brother, and she bore him Edgar Atheling, Margaret, after- 
ward Queen of Scotland, and Christiana. Edwy, King Ed- 
mund's brother, was slain , by Edric, by command of Canute. 
After the nnirder of Edwy, there were still two claimants to the 
throne, Edward and Alfred, the sons of Ethelred by his second 
wife, Emma of Xormandy. Their rights were asserted by their 
uncle, Richard, Duke of Xormandy, but Canute settled that 
dispute by marrying their mother. 

The English, though they disapproyed of the marriage, Vv^ere 
pleased to find at court a sovereign to whom they had become 
accustomed, and thus Canute, besides securing the friendship of 
Xormandy, acquired, by the same means, the conlidence of his 
subjects. He found himself obliged to gratify his chief nobility 
with high appointments, and to load his people with heayy 
taxes to reward his Danish followers. He sent back to Den- 
mark as many as he could safely spare. He made no distinc- 



38 CANUTE. ■ [1020-28. 

tions between Danes and English in the dispensing of justice, 
and took care to protect the lives and property of all his sub- 
jects alike. Having settled his power in England beyond all 
danger of revolntion, he made a voyage to Denmark in order to 
resist an attack made by the King of Sweden. against that coun- 
try, and carried along with him a large body of English troops 
under command of Earl Godwin, who did the king good service 
and gained him a victory over the Swedes, for which Canute 
gave him his daughter in marriage. 

On his return from Denmark he summoned Malcolm, King of 
Scotland, to acknowledge himself a vassal for Cumberland, and 
do homage to the crown of England ; but Malcolm refused. 
Canute was not of a temper to bear this insult, and Malcolm 
soon found that the sceptre was in very different hands from 
those of the feeljle and indolent Ethelred. Upon Canute ap- 
pearing\on the frontier with a formidable army, Malcolm agreed 
that his grandson and heir, Duncan, whom he put in j)OSsession 
of Cumberland, should make the submissions required, and that 
the heirs of Scotland should ever after acknowledge themselves 
vassals to the crown of England for that province. 

Canute's absence from Denmark, and his bestowal of many 
dignities there on his English subjects, made him unpopular in 
that kingdom. To appease this discontent in the year 1026 he 
left his son Hardicanute, only ten years of age, behind him as 
viceroy, under charge of his brother-in-law Ulf. 

In this year he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and was i-eceived 
with great consideration by Pope John XIX., and also by the 
^ Emperor Conrad II., who gave up to him all the country north 
of the Eider. He returned from Rome to Denmark in the year 
1028, and from thence published a.letter " To all the nations of 
the English," one passage of which reads: "And now, be it 
known to you all, that I have dedicated my life to God, to gov- 
ern, my kingdom with justice, and to observe the right in all 
things. If, in the time that is 2'>ast, and in the violence and 
carelessness of youth, I have violated justice, it is my intention, 
by the help of God, to make full compensation. Therefore I 
beg and command those to whom I have entrusted the govern- 
ment, as they wish to preserve my goodwill, and save their own 



1030-35.] CANUTE, 39 

souls, to do no injustice either to poor or rich. Let those m-Iio 
are noble, and those who are not, equally obtain their rights 
according to the laws, from Mdiich no deviation will be allowed, 
either from fear of me or through favor to the powerful, or for 
the purpose of supplying my treasury. I want no money raised 
by injustice." 

lie then made an expedition into Norway, expelled Olaf, 
and restored Haco, wdio swore allegiance to him. In 1029 he 
returned to England. 

In 1031 Canute was acknowledged King of Xorway, and he 
made claim to the throne of Sweden. On his return to England 
he allowed Ilardicanute to share the Danish crown with him. He 
completed a code of laws, still extant, in which he denounced 
those who kept up the pagan rites and superstitions, and for- 
bade the sending Christian slaves out of the country for sale. 

Canute, the most powerful monarch of his time, sovereign of 
England, Denmark, and Xorway, could not fail meeting with 
adulation from his courtiers. Some of his flatterers, breaking out 
one day in adulation of his grandeur, exclaimed that everything 
was possible with him ; upon which, it is said, the king ordered 
his chair "to be set on the seashore while the tide was rising, and 
as the waters approached he ordered them to retire, and to obey 
the voice of him who was lord of the ocean. He feigned to sit 
some time, as if in expectation of their submission, but when the 
sea still advanced and washed his feet with its waves, he turned 
to his courtiers and said that every creature in tlie univei'se 
was feeble and impotent, and that power was with One Being 
alone, and in whose hands were all the elements, who only 
could say to the c^ean, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no far- 
ther," and would level witli a nod the most towering piles of 
•human pride and ambition. 

When Canute ceased to be an enemy of England, he became 
a real friend ; his power was too strong to be disputed, and he 
therefore wielded it with moderation after the contest for 
supremacy was fairly over. He was an unmitigated despot in 
his own half Christian lands, but he adapted his English rule to 
the higher civilization of his most important kingdom, 

Canute died November 12, 1035, in the forty-first year 



40 HAROLD I. (HAREFOOT). [1035. 

of liis age, and the eighteenth of liis reign. lie married first 
Alfgiv^a, daugliter of the Earl of Northampton, wlioni lie pnt 
away in order to marry Emma, widow of Ethelred 11. He had 
issue three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and Ilardicanute, and one 
daughter, and was succeeded by Harold. 

CoNTEiMPOR ARY liuLEBs. — Scotlaud : Malcoliu II., Duncan I. ; 
Eraiice : Robert the Pious, Henry I. ; Emperors of the AVest : 
Henry II., Conrad. 

Harold I. (Harefoot) — A.D, 1035-1039. 

HxVEOLD, surnamed Harefoot from his swiftness in running, 
was the second son of Canute by Alfgiva, and was born in the 
year 1014. 

At the time of Canute's death, of all the possible claimants to 
the crown of England, Harold was the only one in the country ; 
the two sons of Edmund Ironsides were in Hungary. Ethel- 
red's two sons were in Normandy, and Ilardicanute in Denmark. 

Although Canute, in his treaty with Richard, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, stipulated that his children by Queen Emma should 
succeed to the ci'own of Enghind, he had either considered him- 
self released from that engagement by tlie death of Duke Rich- 
ard, or dangerous to leave an unsettled and newly conquered 
kingdom in the hands of one so young as Ilardicanute. He 
therefore by will appointed Harold his successor. Tliis prince, 
besides being on tJie spot, was favored by all the Danes, and 
was in possession of his fathers treasury, while Ilardicanute 
was favored by the English, and by Earl Godwin, the most 
powerful nobk^uan in the kin<2;dom. Affairs were likely to 
terminate in a civil war, when, by the interposition of a Witan 
held at Oxford, composed of the principal, nobihty of both- 
parties, it was decided that Mercia and Northumberland should 
be assigned to Harold, whilst Wessex slioukl l)e hekl by Emma as 
Regent for her son Ilardicanute, who remained in his Scandi- 
navian kingdom. Tliere was a strong party in AVessex who 
would have pi'eferred the sons of their old Saxon king Ethelred. 

Richard, Duke of Normandy, being dead, and succeeded by 
his son, a minor, the two English princes, finding no longer 



1039.] HAROLD I. (HAREFOOT). 41 

protection in that conntiy, gladly embraced the opportunity of 
paying a visit to their mother, Queen Emma, Avho seemed to be 
placed in much power in Wessex, and then residing in Win- 
chester. 

Edward was the first to arrive, and brought a few Xorman 
soldiers with him, wdio were hatefid to the people. Alfred, 
with a few followers, landed in Kent and proceeded to Canter- 
bury, where he was gladly received by the people. Ethelnof, 
the archbishop, welcomed the exile, for Harold, who had 
claimed to be supreme king over all England, was leading an 
infamous life, and the archbishop had refused to consecrate 
him. 

In the meantime Earl Godwin had been gained over by the 
arts of Harold, by promising to marry the earl's daughter, and 
they laid a plot to nmrder the two young princes. Alfred was 
therefore invited by Harold to visit him in London, Avith many 
professions of friendship, and Godwin conducted him on the 
way there. They arrived at Guildford, and in the night the 
young prince was seized, his eyes were put out, and he was 
afterward murdered. 

Edward and his mother, on hearing of the tragedy, and fear- 
ing a similar fate, fled to Bruges, and Harold was proclaimed 
king of all England, and took possession, without meeting any 
resistance, of the dominions assigned to his brother, and seized 
the estate of his father's widow. This is the only memorable 
action pei'formed during his reign. His character was bad, and 
his only accomplishment that of agility, by which he acquired 
the name of Harefoot. 

Harold was never married, and died on the 14:tli of April, 
1039, in the twenty-fifth year of his age and fourth of his reign, 
and was succeeded by his half-brother, Hardicanute, who had 
his body disinterred from Westminster Abbey, and cast into the 
river Thames, but it was recovered by a fisherman, and probably 
buried in a. Danish cemetery. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Duncan I. ; France : 
Hemy I. ; Emperors of the West : Conrad II., Henry III. 



42 HARDICANUTE. [1039. 

Hardicanute — A.D. 1039-1041. 

IIardtcantjte, youngest son of Canute hy liis queen Emma, 
widow of Etlielred, was born in the year 1016. 

He was for the past three years King of Denmark, and had 
not abandoned his pretensions to the kingdom of England. He 
was preparing a fleet of sixty ships on pretence of paying a visit 
to liis mother, the queen-dowager, in FLanders, but i-eally for 
a descent on England, when he heard of King Harold's death. 
He immediately set forth for London, where he was received in 
triumph, and was proclaimed king without opposition. His 
first act on taking charge of the government gave his sul)jects a 
bad opinion of his future conduct. Being enraged at Harold's 
cruel treatment of his brother Alfred, and with a desire of ven- 
geance, he ordered his l)ody to be thrown into the Thames. 
Godwin, equally ser^-ile and insolent, and having sworn to his 
innocence in respect to the murder, subuiitted to be his instru- 
ment, hoping, by his displaying rage against Harold's memory, 
to justify himself with the king. 

Edward being invited to England by Hardicanute, preferred 
charges against Godwin fo;* the nnu'der of his brother, and de- 
manded justice. Godwin, in order to appease the king, made 
him a present of a magnificent galley, rowed by fourscore men, 
armed and clothed in a sumptuous manner. Hardicanute, 
pleased with such splendor, soon forgot his brother's murder. 

He quickly lost the affection of the nation by his misconduct, 
and particularly by his i-enewing the imposition of the Dane- 
geld, and obliging the nation to pay a large sum of money to 
the fleet which brought him from Denmark. The discontent 
ran high in many places. In AVorcester the populace rose, and 
put to death two of the collectors. The king, enraged, swore 
vengeance against the city and ordered three noblemen to exe- 
cute his menaces with the greatest rigor. They set fire to the 
city, and delivered it to the soldiers for plunder, but they saved 
the lives of the inhalntauts, whom they confined on a small 
island, until they could appease the king and obtain his pardon. 

Hardicanute suffered his mother and Earl Godwin to rule the 
kingdom, while he abandoned himself to feasts and carousals. 



1041] EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. 43 

He was surrounded witli Danish flatterers and boon companions. 
His followers were insolent to the Saxon race, and their sociality 
was more injurious than their insults. 

The Saxons were addicted to intemperance ; yet the example 
of Hardicanute and his courtiers plunged them still deeper into 
sensuality. Hardicanute, the last of the Danish kings, soon 
made an end of his feasts and dominion. At a great marriage 
banquet, at the house of Clapa, one of his Thanes, the king stood 
up, at a late hour of the night, to pledge the company, and, 
dropping senseless, was carried to his deathbed, after having 
reigned a little less than two years. He died on the 8th of 
June, 1041, in the twenty -fifth year of his age, was never mar- 
ried, and was succeeded by his half-brother Edward. 

CoNTEMPOEAEY RuLERS. — Scotland : Duncan I., Macbeth ; 
France: Henry I. ; Emperor of the West : Henry HI. 



THE AKGLO-SAXON RULE RESTORED. 
Edward (the Confessor) — A.D. 1041-1066. 

Edward — surnamed the Confessor — was the youngest son of 
King Ethelred II., and his queen Emma of jSTormandy, and was 
born in 1004. 

He was fortunately at court on the death of his half-brother 
Hardicanute. Though the descendants of Edmund Ironsides 
were the tnie heirs of the Saxon family, yet their absence in so 
remote a country as Hungary appeared a sufficient reason for 
their exclusion to a people like the English, so little accustomed 
to observe a regular order in the succession of their khigs. De- 
lays might be dangerous, and the present opportunity must be 
hastily embraced, as the Danes, without a leader and without 
concert, were only anxious for their safety. 

The English nation, now composed of Anglo-Saxons and 
Danes, had been under direct foreign domination for a quarter 
of a century. Under the weak government of Ethelred for 
thirty-seven years, the Saxons had sustained an unequal conflict 
with their plundering and tribute-exacting enemy. All the 
glories of the race of Cerdic had vanished. The kingdom 



44 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. [1041. 

]uid passed tlirougli a long period of intestine war, Lnt tliere was 
still a people. There was a people, with the memories of Alfred, 
the iirst Edward, and Athelstan, still preserved in their national 
songs and traditions. The last of the oppressing race was gone. 
The lineal descendant of the Saxon race was amongst them. 

Edward, the son of Ethelred, had been bronght np an exile 
^ with the relations of his mother, lie had no vigor of character, 
and had received the education of a monk, rather than that of 
the descendant of a long line of kings ; he was familiar with 
other customs, and with another language than that belonging 
to his race. In his mind the great idea of nationality had but 
little place. But he was the one left in whom the Saxons 
could cherish the sacred feelings of a legitimate descent, which 
gave to the kings the attribute of blood — that attribute which, 
in the eyes of the people, was more important than the talent 
and courage of any claimant who was not of tlie stock of those 
sons of Woden who, ti\'e hundred years before, had led the 
blue-eyed myriads to conquest. Tliere was a man in England 
of great ability, of almost supreme power, who had that intense 
feeling of nationality which would make the Saxon race again 
predominant, and in that predominance would absorb all minor 
differences which separated the Danish settlers from the Saxons. 
That man was Earl Godwin, lie saw, which was not difficult to 
discover, that on the opposite shores there had grown up a 
nation that would be a niore formidable enemy to England than 
any of the Scandinavian people. lie knew that the conquest 
of England had long been the secret aspiration of the iS^ormans. 

The descendants of Rollo, planted in a rich soil, cultivating 
arts in which England was inferior, possessing a more refined 
taste, of indomitable courage amidst their refinements, dreaded 
by the French kings, whose sovereignty they despised, the 
conquerors of Sicily, the heirs of the courage and the ambition 
of the old sea-kings — tliese were the men whom England had 
now to dread. Was Godwin powerful enough to be the leader 
of his country ? The time was not come, lie put Edward on 
the throne, his oidy stipulation being that the king should 
])romise to marry his daughter Editha. Having received this 
l)romise, he summoned a general council of the great nobles at 



1043.] EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. 45 

Gillingliam, and prepared every measure for securing the suc- 
cession for Edward. The English were unanimous in their 
decision, and the Danes divided, so Edward was crowned king 
with eveiy demonstration of duty and affection. 

The triumph of the English was at first attended with some 
insult and violence to the Danes, but the king, by his mildness 
of character, soon reconciled them to his administration, and 
the distinction between the two nations soon disappeared. 

The Danes were interspersed with the English in most of the 
provinces. They spoke nearly the same language, and differed 
little in manners and laws. Domestic troubles in Denmark 
prevented any powerful invasion, and the I^Torman conquest, 
which followed soon after, reduced both nations to equal sub- 
jection, so there js no mention in history of any further differ- 
ences between them. 

The king lived on indifferent terms with liis mother, and 
showed her some severity, accusing lier of neglecting him and 
his brother during their adversity, aiid her always giving pref- 
erence to her children by the second marriage with Canute. 
The same reasons made her unpopular in England. lie con- 
fined her durino; the remainder of her life in a nunnerv at Win- 
Chester, and stripped her of all her fortune. 

The kingdom was now at peace. There was no foreign power 
to disturb the rest of the king. The fierce contests about 
ecclesiastical discipline had passed away, and Edward hunted 
and hawked in his forest at Bernwood. The gentle king M'as 
also a healer of tlie sick and a restorer of sight. It was he wdio 
first used the healing benediction, which he left to succeeding 
heirs, and was known as the cure for the king's evil for many 
subsequent reigns. 

When Edward became possessed of the power and riches that 
belonged to the crown of fertile England, the Xormans crowded 
round him to share tlie abundance of his treasury. They came 
to fill the great ofiice of his household ; to be the leadei-s of his 
troops; to take command of his fortresses; to be his spiritual 
directors ; to have the richest abbeys and the most honored 
bishoprics. 

The seal of wax which Edward was the first to affix to his 



46 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. [1045-50. 

cliarters, instead of the mark of the cross of the Anglo-Saxon 
kings, M'as an offence against the nationality of England. In 
the palace where Editha was queen, her father and brothers 
spoke their country's language, and wore their country's long 
mantle, whilst Edward gathered round him the short-cloaked 
liormans, and bade his subjects address their petitions to his 
clerks, who only heard those who could speak the Norman 
tongue. The jS^orman favorites ridiculed the Saxon lords, 
and the Saxon lords looked for a day of vengeance upon the 
!Nornian favorites. 

Ulf and William, two Xormans who had formerly been the 
king's chaplains, were created bishops, and Robert, another 
!Nornian, was promoted to the Arch See of Canterbury, which 
excited the jealousy of the English, particularly the Earl God- 
win, Avho possessed great influence and large possessions, and 
whose abilities and great ambition rendered him dangerous, and 
his haughty temper made him often forget the respect due to 
his king. 

Edward's animosity against him was grounded on personal, 
as well as political considerations, on recent as well as former 
injuries. The king's marriage to Editha, Godwin's daughter, 
was a fresh source of enmity between them, Edward's hatred 
for the father was transferred to the daughter, and, although 
she possessed many amiable qualities and accomplishments, 
could never acquire her husband's confidence or love, and it was 
said he would never allow her to share his bed ; and such was 
the absurd admiration paid to inviolable chastity in those days, 
that he acquired the surname of the " Confessor." 

The most popular pretence on which Godwin could ground 
his disaffection to the king and his administration, was to com- 
plain of the influence of the Xormans in the government ; and 
a declared rupture arose between him and those favorites. 
Some of them were afterward attacked, and Eustace, the Coimt 
of Boulogne, was killed. Edward, touched in so sensitive a 
point, saw the necessity of exerting his royal authority, and 
he threatened Godwin, if he persisted in his disloyalty, he 
would make him feel the utmost effects of his resentment. 

Godwin, perceiving a rupture to be inevitable, and pleased to 



1050-53.] EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. 47 

embark in a cause where it was likely lie would be supported by 
his countrymen, made preparations for an attack upon the king, 
under pretence of repressing some disturbances in Wales. He 
secretly assembled a large army and was approaching the king, 
who resided, without any military force or suspicion, at Glouces- 
ter. Edward applied for protection to the Dukes of Mercia 
and Northumbria, who, jealous of Godwin's greatness, as well 
as mindful of their duty to the crown, engaged to defend the 
king in his extremity. They hastened to him with all the fol- 
lowers that they could assemble ; and finding the danger greater 
than they expected, issued orders for the raising of all the forces 
available in their respective provinces. 

Godwin, in the meantime, thought he had the king entirely 
in his power, but by delay lost the opportunity of rendering 
himself master of the government. 

Edward's army was now considerable. He took the field and 
marched on London, where he summoned a great council to 
judge of the rebellion of Godwin and his sons. 

These noblemen at first pretended they were willing to stand 
their trial, but having in vain endeavored to make their adhe- 
rents persist in rebellion, fled to Flanders, and their estates 
were all confiscated. 

In the year 1053, Godwin, by the assistance of the Count of 
Flanders, fitted out an expedition manned with his followers 
and freebooters of all nations, put to sea, and attempted a de- 
scent on Sandwich, but the king, being previously informed of 
it, met him with a superior fleet, and he had to return to Flan- 
ders discomfited. But, unfortunately for Edward, he allowed 
his fleet to disband, while Godwin kept his in readiness, and at 
a proper time again put to sea, landed at the Isle of Wight, 
where he was joined by his son Harold, wdio had collected a 
force in Ireland. 

He was now master of the sea, and entering every port on the 
southern coast, seized all the ships, and summoned all his old 
followers to assist him in procuring justice for himself and 
family. Reinforced by large numbers, he entered the Thames, 
and, appearing before London, threw everything into confusion. 

The king alone was resolute ; but the interposition of the 



48 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. [1053-57. 

English nobility, many of wliom favored Godwin, made Edward 
hearken to the terms of accommodation, q,nd tlie feigned humil- 
ity of the earl paved the way for a settlement. It was stipu- 
lated that he should give hostages for his good behavior, and 
they were sent to Normandy for safe-keeping. 

Godwin's death happened soon after, while he was sitting at 
the king's table. He was succeeded in the government of Wes- 
sex, Sussex, and Kent, and in the office of Great Steward of the 
Household by his son Harold, a man of equal ambition, but 
M'ho had acquired the good-will of the king. 

Edward was now worn out Nvith cares and infirmities, and 
having no issue, began to think of appoiriting a successor to the 
crown. He sent a deputation to Hnngary to invite over his 
nephew Edward, son of his elder brother Ednumd, the only heir 
in the Saxon line. That prince, whose succession to the crown 
would have been easy and undisputed, came to England with 
his children, Edgar, surnamed Atheling, Margaret, and Chris- 
tiana ; but his death, which happened a few days after his 
arrival, threw the king into new difficulties. He saw that the 
great power and ambition of Harold had tempted him to think 
of obtaining possession of the throne on the first opportunity, 
and that Edgar, on account of his youth and inexperience, was 
unfit to oppose so popular a i-ival. In this uncertainty he 
secretly cast his eyes toward his kinsman, William Duke of 
Xormandy, as the only one whose power and reputation could 
support any decision he might make in his favor to the exclu- 
sion of Harold and his family. 

Harold, in the meantime, continued increasing his popularity 
and establishing his power, preparing the way for his future 
advancement ; but there was still an obstacle which it was neces- 
sary to overcome, namely, the return of the hostages sent to 
Kormandy for Godwin's good behavior. Amongst them were a 
son and a grandson of the late earl, and Harold was anxious for 
their return before he endangered their lives by any act of his. 
He therefore represented to Edward his great loyalty to him, 
and the little necessity of detaining longer hostages who had 
been required when civil strife existed. His great power over 
Edward soon extorted the king's consent to their release, and 



1060-66.] HAROLD II. 49 

he immediately started with a numerous retinue for that pur- 
pose. 

On the voyage he was shipwrecked on the coast and taken 
prisoner by tlie Count of Ponthieu,-who demanded a ransom, 
hut he was liberated through the influence of the Duke of Kor- 
mandy, and on arrival at his court was informed by the duke 
of his pretensions to the English throne, and of the will riiade 
by Edward in his favor. He promised Harold every advance- 
ment under his rule. Harold Avas surprised at this declaration, 
but being sensible that he would never recover his liberty, much 
less that of his brother and nephew if he refused, took an oath 
to support William's pretensions to the crown. He was thei'e- 
fore allowed to return with the hostages to England. 

Fortune about this time assisted him in his popularity Avith 
the English, by his suppression of an insurrection in Wales, and 
afterward of one in Xoi'thmnbria, which enaljled him openly to 
aspire to the succession. He insisted that there was no one so 
capable of occupying the throne, from his long experience and 
known courage, and being a native of the kingdom, would secure 
it against the domination of all foreigners. Edward, broken 
with age, saw difficulties too great for him, and took but feeble 
and irresolute steps for securing the succession to the Duke of 
Kormandy. 

While he continued in this uncertainty, he was attacked by a 
fatal sickness, which brought him to his grave. He died on the 
5th of January, 1066, in the sixty-second year of his age and the 
twenty -fifth of his reign. He married Editha, the daughter of 
Earl Godwin. ]N"o issue. He was the last of the royal line of 
Saxon kings, and was honored as a saint in the Roman Catholic 
Church. He was succeeded by Harold, son of Earl Godwin. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland: Macbeth, Malcolm HI. ; 
France : Henry I., Philip I. ; Emperors of the West : Henry 
III., Henry IV. 

Harold II.— A. D. 1066. 

Harold, son of Earl Godwin and his wife Gytha, a Danish 
princess, and consecjuently not of the royal line of England, was 
the last sovereign of the Anglo-Saxon race. He had so pre- 
4 



50 HAROLD II. [1060. 

pared matters before Edward's death, that his succession to the 
throne was attended with little opposition. The citizens of 
London were friendly to him. The bishops and clergy adopted 
his cause, and the nobility seconded his pi-etensions. The title 
of Edgar was scarcely mentioned, much less the claim of the 
Duke of Xormandy, and Harold, assembling his partisans, re- 
ceived the crown from their hands without waiting for an as- 
sembly of the States. If any were averse to this measure, they 
were obliged to conceal their sentiments, and, taking silence for 
consent, he founded his title on the supposed suffrages of the 
people, which appeared unanimous, and on the day succeeding 
Edward's death, Harold was crowned and anointed king, by Al- 
dred. Archbishop of York, and the whole nation appeared to 
accjuiesce in his elevation. 

Edward, it is said, had willed the succession to William, Duke 
c>f Xormand}', but had been prevented by sickness from taking 
steps for the security of the testament. Harold claimed a simi- 
lar testamentary right. Tostig, Harold's brother, tilled with 
hatred against him for fancied wrongs, appealed to the King o£ 
Xorway, who promised to assist him to invade England. He 
collected a force in Flanders, and, after planning operations 
with Duke William, he ravaged the southern coast of England, 
and Avas afterward defeated by the Earls of Mercia and Xorth- 
umbria. He then retired to Scotland to await the arrival of 
his allies. Duke William is in the city of Rouen, when he 
hears that Edward is dead, and that Harold fills the throne. 
He is a nian of action, and wastes no time in impotent rage. 
His envoy departs for Tiome, to ask that IS'icholas II. should 
put England imder interdict — the England who had chosen 
a perjurer for king, that had expelled a Norman archbishop 
whom Rome had consecrated, that had ceased to ])ay Peter's 
pence, which her pious kings of old had Avillingly given ! The 
duke secured the aid of Rome. He was not so successful with 
the King of France, Avliose aid he implored. Philip of France 
thought his imperious vassal somewhat too powerful already. 
Baldwin of Flanders, his brother-in-law, was equally indispo.sed 
to assist him in his 'enterprise. Conan, of Brittany, after Wil- 
liam had for some time announced his design, declared war against 



1066.] HAROLD II. 51 

liim, claiming Normandy as liis own. Conan soon paid the 
penalty of his rashness. He died by poison. 

William had still to sm'nionnt difficulties with his own people. 
He called a great council at his castle of Lillebonne, of his 
principal warriors, churchmen, and burghers, and told them of 
his plans, and asked their aid. -They retired to deliberate. 
Fierce was the debate, and though Fitz-Osbert, the seneschal 
of Normandy, urged their compliance, they sturdily refused what 
William asked. They would give no double knight's service. 
They would defend their own country, but they would not aid 
their duke in making a conquest beyond the sea. William soon 
found out a secret which has been transmitted to later times. 
Those who were obstinate in a public assembly, were pliant 
enough in private negotiations. Gold did more than the elo- 
quence of Fitz-Osbert. 

Then went forth a proclamation. That, supported by the 
Holy Father of Christendom, who had sent to him a conse- 
crated banner, William, Duke of Normandy, was al)out to de- 
mand, by force of arms, his rightful inheritance of England, 
and that all who would serve him with spear, sword, or cross- 
bow, should be amply rewarded. At this call gathered all the 
adventurers of Western Europe. They came in crowds from 
Maine and Anjou, from Poitou and Brittany, from Aquitaine 
and Burgundy, from France and Flanders. They should have 
land ; they should have money ; they should wed Saxon heir- 
esses ; the humblest foot soldier should be a gentleman — such 
were the inducements. The summer of 106G was almost passed 
before the arrangements were complete. 

As the King of Norway, accompanied by Tostig, landed un- 
opposed at Scarborough, they were met near York by the 
northern earls, who were defeated, and retreating to York, were 
besieged in that city. 

Harold, Mdien informed of this defeat, hastened with an army 
to the assistance of his people, and showed the greatest ardor 
to be considered worthy of the crown conferred on him. The 
people flocked from all quarters to join his standard, and as 
soon as he had reached the enemy at Stamford, found himself 
in a condition to give them battle. 



52 HAROLD II. [1066. 

The action was a Woody one, and the victory decisive on tlie 
side of Harold, and ended in the total rout of the Norwegians, 
too;ether with the death of Kini^ Halfgrar and Tostis;. Even the 
Norwegian lieet fell into the hands of Harold, who had the 
generosity to give Prince Olave, son of Halfgar, his liberty 
and allowed him to depart with twenty ships. But he had 
scarcely time to rejoice over the victory, when he received in- 
telligence that the Duke of Normandy had landed on the 29th 
September, 1066, at Pevensey. 

He hastily gathered what troops he could round tlie nucleus 
of his own immediate followers who had been with him at 
Stamford, and connnenced his march southward to meet the 
enemy. All the south of England joined him gladly, both from 
Wesse.x and East Anglia. 

The Norman fleet, consisting of over one thousand vessels of 
all sizes, and a selected array of fifty thousand men, had been 
assembled early in the sunnner near the mouth of the river 
Dive, where they were detained for over thirty days by contrary 
winds. On the 2Tth September they embarked, and soon after 
weighed anchor, and departed for the opposite shore, where 
they arrived two days after, and quietly landed on Pevensey 
beach. Shortly after they removed their camp to Hastings. 

Harold was so confident of success, that he sent a message to 
William, promising him a sum of money if he would leave the 
country without the spilling of blood, but his offer was rejected 
with disdain. 

William, not to be outdone by his enemy in making offers, 
sent him a message with three proposals, requiring him, either 
to resign the kingdom, and hold it of him in fealty ; or to sub- 
mit their cause to the arbitration of the Pope ; or to fight him 
in single combat. Harold replied that the God of battles would 
soon arbitrate between them. His brother Gurth, a man of 
great bravery and experience, entertained fears for the result 
of the battle, and advised the king not to expose his person in. 
the action. Harold was deaf to all remonstrances, elated with 
his recent success, as well as stinmlated by his native courage, 
and resolved to give battle in person. 

On the 13th October the army of Harold was eiicamped on a 



1066] HAROLD II. 53 

range of hills near a place then called Senlac. The English 
spent the night in riot, jollity, and discord. The Kormans, on 
another range of hills, passed the night in the functions of their 
religion, silence and prayer. 

On the morning of the 14th October, 1066, the duke called 
his commanders together, and made them a suitable speech, 
divided his army into three lines, and at nine, o'clock in the 
morning moved across the valley, with the Papal banner car- 
ried in advance. They were foi-midable in their cavalry and 
bowmen. The English waited the attack, and received the foe 
like a mighty wall, and after a desperate fight of six hours the 
English were defeated with great loss, and William had gained 
at Hastings the crown of England. Harold was slain by an 
arrow while he was fighting with great bravery at the head of 
his men, and his two brothers shared his fate. The English, 
discouraged by the fall of their king, gave way on all sides. 
They were pursued with great slaughter until darkness saved 
them. 

The Norman^army, before leaving the field, returned thanks 
to heaven in the most solemn manner. William had three 
horses killed under him. The dead body of Harold was brought 
to him before leaving the field, and was restored by him to his 
mother, without ransom. The loss of the English was over 
twenty thousand men, and the Normans about fifteen thousand. 

Harold married the daughter of Algar, widow of Grifiith, 
King of Wales, but had no issue, and died on the 14th October, . 
1066, aften ten months' reign. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Malcolm III. ; France : 
Philip I. ; Emperor of the West : Henry IV. 




THE NORMAN RULE. 



A.D. 1066-1154. 



KoRMANDY, a northwest province of France, is bounded on the 
nortli and west by the English channel ; on the east bj Picar- 
dy, and south by Maine, Brittany, and Perche. 

The early Gallic inhabitants were subdued by the Ponians, 
before the birth of Christ. Early in the tenth century it 
was conquered by the jS'orsenien, who gave it the name of 
Normandy, 

In the year of our Lord 912, Charles the Simple, King of 
France, gave his consent to the conrpiest of the Northmen, and 
Polio, their chief, received the title of Duke of Normand}'. 

William, the illegitimate son of Duke Kobert the Devil, 
sixth successor of Polio, and Duke of Normandy, became, in 
the year lOGG, the conqueror and first Norman king of England. 

William I. (the Conqueror) — A.D. 1066-1087. 

Born at Falaise, Normandy, September 9, 1025. 
('ouquered England, at battle of Hastings, October 14, lOfiG. 
Crowned at Westminster Abbey, December 25, lOGG, by Aldred, Archbishop of 
York. 



106G.] WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). 55 

Married Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V. , Count of Flanders, fifth, in descent 
from Ethelwida, daughter of Alfred the Great, and tenth in descent from 
Charlemagne. Had issue : 

Robert, his successor to the Duchy of Normandy. 

Richard, killed in the New Forest. 

William " Rufus," who succeeded him. 

Henry, who succeeded William II. 

Cecile, who took the veil. 

Constance, married the Earl of Brittany. 

Alice, died young. 

Adela, married Stephen, Count of Blois. 

Agatha, died September 9, 1087, at Rouen, and buried at Caen. 

WfLLEAM — siiruamed the Conqueror — from liis victory over 
Harold, at Hastings, was born at Falaise, Xormandy, Septem- 
ber 9, 1025 ; was the illegitimate son of Robert, Duke of 
IS'ormandy, called Robert the Devil, and Arietta, the beautiful 
daughter of a tanner. 

Tlie death of Harold at the battle of Ilastino;s had left Eno-- 
land without a king. Xothing could exceed the consternation 
of the English when they received intelligence of the unfortu- 
nate battle, the death of the king, the slaughter of their princi- 
jpal nobility and bravest warriors, and the complete rout of the 
army. 

But although the loss which they had sustained was consider- 
able, it might have been repaired where the people generally 
were well armed, and where there resided so many powerful 
noblemen, who could have assembled their retainers and ob- 
liged the Duke of ^^ormandy to divide his army, and probal)ly 
M'aste it, in a variety of actions and i-encontres. It was thus 
that the kingdom had formerly resisted its invaders. 

But tliere were many vices in the Anglo-Saxon constitution, 
which rendered it difficult for the English to defend their liber- 
ties in so critical an emergency. The people in a measure had 
lost their national pride and spirit by their recent and long 
subjection to the Danes ; and as Canute had, in the course 
of his administration, much abated the rigor of concpiest, and 
had governed them equitably by their own laws, they regarded 
with less terror the ignominy of a foreign yoke, and as they 
had long been accustomed to regard Edgar Atheling, the only 
heir to the Saxon line, as too young and unfit to govern them 



5(5 WILLIAM L (THE CONQUEROR). [1066. 

even in times of peace and tranquillity, tliey conld entertain bnt 
small hopes of his being able to repair such great losses as they 
liad sustained, or to withstand the victorious arms of the Duke 
of IS^ormandj. 

That they might not be altogether wanting in their duty, the 
two leading earls, Edwin and Morcar, in concert with Stigand, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, called a meeting of the Witan, or 
an assembly of the principal nobility to represent one. They 
were in hopes that, now the house of Godwin was practically 
destroyed, the crown might be given to one of these two earls, 
but they were disappointed in their hopes. Of properly quali- 
jfied candidates there w^ere none, but the assembly preferred to 
place the crown npon the head of the grandson of Ednnind 
"Ironsides," young Edgar Atheling, and he was proclaimed 
king. They endeavored to place the people in a posture of de- 
fence, and encouraged them to resist the ISTormans. 

But, owing to the treasonable conduct of the two earls, Ed- 
M'in and Morcai-, after the election of the young king, by with- 
drawing their troops, although they accepted the election, and 
refusing to give practical support for the defence of Wessex, no' 
further combined action was possible, and no other great battle 
was fought. 

Meanwhile AVilliam, determined that his enemies should not 
have leisure to recover from their consternation, or unite in 
councils, put himself in motion to make good his conquest, lie 
determined to subdue the southeastern counties before he ad- 
vanced against London. He marched eastward, took Romney, 
and captured the town and castle of Dover, and had reached 
Canterl)ury, where he was seized Avith an illness which kept him 
inactive during the whole month of November. He sent a force 
which secured the great town of AYinchester, and thence in De- 
cember he moved to attack the capital, but contented himself 
with burning the suburb of Southwark, and passed on westward 
on the southern side of the Thames, which he did not cross 
until he reached Wallingford, intending to pass nortlnvard, and 
thus cut the city off from the unconquered country. With this 
view he marched to Berkhampstead, in Hertfordshire. His 
progress had broken the spirit of the Londoners. The clergy, 



1066.] WILLIAM L (THE CONQUEROR). 57 

whose influence was great over the people, now began to declare 
in his favor. Most of the bishops and higher clergy were even 
then French or Konnans, and they insisted that the Pope's 
" Bull " hallowed and authorized his accession, and they sup- 
ported, him. 

Kent having submitted, Southwark being burnt before their 
eyes made them dread a like fate for their own city, and no 
man now entertained a thought but for self-preservation. 

As soon as William had passed the Thames, Stigand, the Lord 
Primate, made submission to him when he came within sight of 
the city. All the chief nobility, and Edgar Atheling, the newly 
elected king, came into his camp, and declared their intention 
of yielding to his authority. 

They now requested him to ascend the throne, which they 
considered vacant. 

Though this was the object to which the duke's expedition 
tended, he pretended to deliberate on the offer, and, wishing to 
preserve the appearance of a legal administration, desired to 
obtain the formal assent of the English nation. But Aimar of 
Aquitaine, a man greatly respected for valor in the field and 
prudence in the council, remonstrated on the danger of delay at 
so critical a time ; so he laid aside all further scruples, and ac- 
cepted the crown that was tendered to him. 

Orders were immediately issued to prepare for the ceremony 
of the coronation ; but, as he was yet afraid to place entire con- 
fidence in the Londoners, who were numerous and warlike, he 
ordered fortresses to be erected, in order to crush the inhabit- 
ants and to make safe his person and government. 

The coronation took place at Westminster Abbey, December 
25, lOGO, and was performed hy Aldred, Archbishop of York. 
The appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury was not re- 
garded by William as canonical, and he was soon after removed. 

In his oath the king bound himself to protect the church ; 
to administer justice, and to suppress violence ; he was then 
anointed and the crown was placed upon his head. He then re- 
tired into Barking, and there received the submission of all the 
nobility who had not attended his coronation. They were re- 
ceived into favor and confirmed in the possession of their estates 



5S WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). [1066. 

and dignities. Everything bore the appearance of peace and 
tranquillity, and AVilliam had no other occupation than to give 
contentment to the foreigners who liad assisted him to mount 
the throne, and his subjects who liad submitted to him. 

The king had now a difficult duty to perform : he had. to 
propitiate the rapacity of his own people and to avert the hatred 
of those he was called to rule over. The estates of the crown 
were his ; he had confiscated the possessions' of the late king 
and of the Harold family. He treated Edgar Atheling Math 
kindness ; he exhorted his followers to moderation. He so 
regulated the collection of the revenue that the burden should 
be equally distributed. He prohibited all riotous assemblies, 
provided for the safe passage of traders and the transport of 
merchandise by sea and land. But he gave the custody of all 
strongholds and fortresses to his Xorman leaders; and when the 
country was considered settled, the rule was gi\en to Saxon 
chiefs. Up to this time no part of the country had suffej-ed 
from any change in the tenure of property or in the ancient 
laws. 

The army was governed'with severe discipline ; care was' taken 
to give as little offence as possible to the vanquislied people. 
The king appeared solicitous to unite the Xormans and the Eng- 
lish in amity by intermarriage and alliances, and all his new 
subjects who approached his person were received with affability 
and regard. 

No signs of suspicion appeared, not even toward Edgar 
Atheling, whom AVilliam confirmed as Earl of Oxford, created 
by Harold. Although he had confiscated the estates of Harold, 
and many who had fought against him at Hastings, he seemed 
willing to admit of every plausible excuse, and received many 
into his favor who had borne arms- against him. He confirmed 
the liberties and privileges of London and other cities, and ap- 
peared willing to replace everything on the old footing. The 
better to reconcile his new subjects to his authority, he made a 
journey through many parts of the country, ami by his majestic 
presence, his splendid court, and military fame, together with 
his clemency and mercy, gained the approbation t of the wise and 
thoughtful of his new people. 



1067.] WILLIAM L (THE CONQUEROR). 59 

But amidst all this confidence and friendship which he ex- 
pressed for the English, he took good care to place all real power 
in the hands of the Normans and still keep possession of the 
sword, to which he knew he owed his advancement to sovereign 
authority. He disarmed the city of London and other places 
most warlike and populous ; built citadels in that city, as well 
as in Winchester, Hereford, and in others best situated for com- 
manding the kingdom ; quartered Norman soldiers in all of 
them, and left no power able to resist or oppose him. He then 
bestowed the confiscated estates on the most eminent of his 
commanders, and established funds for the payment of his sol- 
diers ; and thus, while his civil administration carried the face 
of A legal magistrate, his military institutions were those of a 
master and tyrant. 

By this mixture of rigor and lenity, he thought he might be 
enabled safely now to visit his native country, and enjoy the 
triumph and congratulations of his former subjects. He left 
the administi'ation of the government in the hands of his half- 
brother, Odo, Bishop of Baieux, and William Fitzosberne. 
That their power should be exposed to less danger, lie took the 
principal nobility of England with him, who, while they seemed 
to add to the splendor of his court, were in reality hostages for 
the fidelity of the nation. 

During the long absence of the Conqueror from England, his 
viceroys commenced a system of oppression wdiich might have 
exterminated a people less bold and enduring than the Anglo- 
Saxon race. Odo and Fitzosberne, the king's lieutenants, gave 
no heed to the reasonable complaints of the people, and dis- 
dained to entertain them. The soldiers outrageously robbed 
the people, and the women "were exposed to their gross licen- 
tiousness. 

The discontent of the English j^eople increased daily, and 
the injuries conmiitted and endured on both sides made the 
quarrel grow daily more rancorous. The insolence of the vic- 
torious masters dispersed throughout the kingdom became in- 
tolerable to them, and whenever they found the Normans alone 
or in small bodies they secretly set upon and murdered them, 

A secret conspiracy was entered into to perpetrate, in one day, 



CO WILLIAM L (THE CONQUEROR). [1007-68. 

a general massacre of tlie Kortnans, like that wliich had formerly 
been executed on the Danes. The king, being informed of this 
dangerous conspiracy, hurried l)ack to England, leaving the gov- 
ernment of Xormandy in the hands of his queen, Matilda, and 
his eldest son Robert, lie sailed from Dieppe, and arrived at 
"Winchester on December 6, 1067. lie kept Christmas in Lon- 
don, and, by the vigorous measures which he instituted, discon- 
certed the schemes of the conspirators. The most violent of 
them made their escape, and the confiscation of their estates 
followed, which enabled him to further gratify the rapacity of 
his Norman commanders and gave them the prospect of further 
forfeitures and attainders. 

William now began to regard all his English subjects as in- 
veterate and irreclaimable enemies, and thenceforth Avas con- 
firmed in the resolution of seizing all their possessions and 
reducing them to abject slavery ; but he had still the art to 
conceal his intentions, and to observe some appearance of justice 
in his oppressions. 

Edgar xVtheling and his two sisters, Princesses Margaret 
and Christiana, had escaped to Scotland, where they had been 
kindly recei^'ed by King Malcolm, who shortly after nuirried 
the Princess Margaret. 

Queen Matilda arrived from jSTormandy in April, IOCS, and 
was immediately crowned at Winchester, by Aldred, Arch- 
bishop of York. She was soon afterward delivered of her fourth 
son, but the first of English birth, lie was baptized as Henry, 
'and succeeded his brother AVilliam on the throne as Henry I. 

The four years which succeeded AV^illiam's return from Nor- 
mandy completed the subjection of the English people, and in 
the development of his character we trace the various gradations 
from mildness to ferocity ; from justice to the most lawless ex- 
ercise of poAver ; from the ordinary cruelty of a despot, to 
delight for blood and deviistation, which few tyrants have been 
able to equal. He had none of the capricious impulses of ordi- 
nary tyrants, and few of their petty jealousies. If a rival was 
weak, he fed and flattered him ; if strong, he imprisoned or 
murdered him. If a city or district gracefully yielded, after a 
brief resistance, he asked no forfeiture of life or lil)crtv of its 



1068-G9] WILLIAM L (THE CONQUEROR). 61 

defenders. If resistance was obstinate and general, there was 
no punishment sliort of extermination, root and branch. One 
great end he never lost sight of — the plunder of the land, which 
he either added to the royal demesne or divided among his fol- 
lowers, Avho became the feudal lords, and thus was established 
the foundation of a powerful aristocracy, which, amid the social 
revolution of centuries, has more successfully defended its ascen- 
dancy than that of any other country of Europe. 

The population of England at this time appears to have been 
under three million inhabitants. About one hundred boroughs 
were governed by municipal customs, or under the protection of 
the king, nobles, or prelates, from whom, in after-times, they 
purchased their franchises. 

In the course of time the distinction between the JSTorman 
conquerors and the conquered Saxons passed away, and from 
their union arose the English people as they now exist. 

It was not to the victory of Hastings, but to the struggle 
which followed his return from Normandy, that William owed 
his title of "■ The Conqueror." During his absence there, the 
tyranny of his half-brother. Bishop Odo, had forced the Kentish 
men to seek aid from Count Eustace of Boulogne, while the 
"Welsh princes supported a similar rising against Xorman op- 
pression in the west. A league of the western towns; headed 
by Exeter, threatened to prove a more serious danger ; but Wil- 
liam found an English force to suppress it, and it was at the 
head of an English army that he advanced upon Mercia and the 
north. His march through Central England reduced Edwin 
and Morcar to submission. In the meantime the Northumbri- 
ans had invested York, where they were joined by Edgar 
Atheling with a band of noble exiles who had taken refuge in 
Scotland. The Normans made a sally upon the insurgents, 
but were utterly defeated, with immense loss, and the city was 
fired by the garrison. In the west, the men of Devon, Somer- 
set, and Dorset gathered at the sieges of Exeter and Monticute, 
while the new Norman castle at Shrewsbury alone stood the 
rising along the Welsh border. So ably had the revolt been 
planned that even AVilliam was taken by surprise. The news 
of the loss of York and the slauo-hter of three thousand Nor- 



02 WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). [1069. 

mans, wlio formed part of its garrison, reached him as he Avas 
hunting in the forest of Dean, and in a wild outburst of wratli 
he swore, by "the splendor of God," to avenge himself on 
Korthumbria ; but wrath went hand in hand with the coolest 
statesmanship. 

Sweyn, the King of Denmark, had for two rears l)een prepar- 
ing to dispute England with the Xormans, and on the appear- 
ance of his fleet in the Ilumber, to assist the insurgents, Wil- 
liam saw clearly that the centre of resistance lay witli the 
Danes ; and pusliing rapidly to the Ilumber with a handful of 
horsemen, he purchased, by a heavy l)ribe, their inactivity and 
withdrawal. He granted them the liberty of plundering the 
sea-coast, provided they would return to Denmark without com- 
mitting further hostilities, which they agreed to. On their de- 
parture, leaving York to the last, William turned rapidly west- 
ward with the troops which gathered around him, and swept 
the Welsh Marshes as far as Shrewsbury. Exeter had already 
been relieved by Fitzosberne, and the king Avas free to fulfll 
liis oath of vengeance on the north. After a long delay owing 
to the flooded waters of the Aire, he entered York. 

King Malcolm, on his arrival from Scotland, found the Danes 
had sailed for home, and that his confederates had separated ; 
and he, with Edgar Atheling and his f(.)llowers, returned to 
Scotland. 

William was no\v undisputed master of the field, and deter- 
mined to incapacitate the Northumbrians from ever giving him 
any further troulfle. lie issued orders for laying waste that 
fertile country, which for the extent of sixty miles lies between 
the II und)er and the Tees; the houses were reduced to ashes, 
the cattle seized and driven away, the instruments of husbandry 
destroyed, and the inhabitants obliged to seek shelter in Scot- 
land ; and those Avho remained perished in the woods from cold 
and hunger, to the number of one hundred thousand souls, 
sacrificed to this barbarous policy. 

The native English were now treated as a conquered people, 
and William w^as determined to reduce them to a condition in 
which they should no longer be formidable to his govennnent. 
The work of venofeance was no sooner over, than William led 



1070.] WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). (33 

his army back from the Tees to York, and thence to Chester 
and tlie west. 

The insurrections and conspiracies in so many parts of the 
kingdom had involved the majority of the landed proprietors, 
and the king took the advantage of pntting into execution 
against them the laws of forfeiture and attainder. Their lives 
were spared, but their estates were confiscated, and were either 
annexed to the royal demesnes, or conferred on his countrymen, 
the king declaring his intention of extirpating the English no- 
bility and gentry. 

It was a sufficient crime for an Englishman to be opulent or 
noble, and the policy of the king, together with the rapacity of 
the foreign adventurers, produced almost a total revolution in 
the landed pi-operty of the kingdom. Ancient and opulent 
families were reduced to beggary ; the nobles everywhere were 
treated with contempt, and had the mortification of seeing their 
castles and manors possessed by Normans of the lowest birth 
and meanest stations, and they themselves excluded from every 
road to riches or preferment. 

He divided the whole country into sixty thousand portions, 
which were termed Knight's fees, the greater part of which he 
granted to his chief oflicers ; but he also kept vast estates in his 
own hands. 

The persons who received these grants were termed tenants- 
in-chief, and instead of rent they were bound to find one fully 
equipped liorseman, and six light armed attendants, who were 
to serve the king for forty days in each year, without pay, for 
each fee. The whole were granted to about fourteen Imndred 
persons, who in their tui-n granted ])ortions to others, called 
under-tenants, for like services as they themselves had to render 
to tlie king. 

This great change in the country is known as the establish- 
ment of the feudal system ; something like it, on a limited 
scale, had been in use among the Saxons, but William extended 
it over the whole country, and on so firm a basis that many parts 
of it exist to the present day. It supplied him, without expense, 
with a large army, and also produced a revenue which his pre- 
decessors had never enjoyed. 



64 WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). [1071-S2. 

It is under William's reign that we first hear of knights. 
They were soldiers who had already served in the capacity of 
squire to some other knight or nobleman, and been promoted 
for services on the field. 

William introduced into England the curfew bell, on the 
rinD-ino- of which all fires and lio-hts must be extinguished at a 
certain hour. 

The religious houses were plundered and the principal mem- 
bers of the Saxon clergy deposed or banished, to make room for 
the Xorman. The Pope and ecclesiastics exclaimed against this 
tyranu}^ ; but the king's authority was so well established that 
superstition itself, even in that age, was obliged to bend under 
his influence. He held the church in great subjection ; he pro- 
hibited his subjects from acknowledging any one as pope whom 
he did not recognize as such ; and that none of his ministers or 
barons could be censured or excommunicated from the church 
M-ithout his consent being first obtained. He even entertained 
the idea of entirely alxjlishing tlie English langnage ; and for 
that purpose ordered that in all schools thronghout the king- 
dom the French language should be taught ; the pleadings in 
the courts of law were in French, and no other tongue allowed 
to be used at court. 

In 1071 a few Saxons who had taken refuge in the Isle of 
Ely, under Earl Morcar and the brave llereward, were attacked, 
and after a long siege were obliged to surrender ; the leaders 
were thrown into prison, and William again disgraced himself 
by ordering .the hands cut off and the eyes put out of many 
among the inferior prisoners. 

In 10S2, Odo the bishop fell into disgrace, and was im- 
prisoned during the remainder of William's life. He was Earl 
of Kent as well as bishop, and when some of his friends ven- 
tured to remonstrate on his captivity, William replied that he 
never would think of imprisoning a bishop, but that he would 
deal with tlie Earl of Kent as he chose. 

Between 1080 and 1086 a survey was made of England, and 
a division of the spoil, called The Domesday Book, is still pre- 
served in the Public Record Office. It shows that the leaders 
at the battle of Hastings had been well provided for. William's 



10S2-87.] WILLIAM I. (THE CONQUEROR). 65 

half-brothers — Robert, Earl of Montaigne, and Odo the bishop — 
had seven hnndred and ninety-three and fonr hnndred and 
thirty-nine manors, and Wihiani liimself one thousand three 
hundred, though King Edward had possessed but one hnndred 
and sixty-five, and Elarold only one hnndred and eighteen. 

The conqnest of England was hardly over when the struggle 
between the king and the barons began. The rising was 
speedily put down, and the leaders, Roger, son of Fitzos- 
berne, Earl of Hereford, and Ralf de Guador, whom the king- 
had rewarded by creating him Earl of Norfolk for his services 
at the battle of Hastings, were imprisoned. 

Scotland, already humbled by William's invasions, was bridled 
by the erection of a strong fortress at Xewcastle-upon-Tyne. 

In 1076 Pope Gregory wrote a letter to AVilliam, requiring 
him to do homage for the kingdom of England to the See of 
Kome, and to pay him tribute. By the latter he meant " Peters 
pence." William replied that the money would be sent, but it 
was not his purpose to impose such servitude as homage on his 
state. 

Dissensions now broke out between the king and his son 
Pobert, in Normandy. Robert desired to make his nominal 
position real, and demanded Normandy and Maine of his 
father, which was refused. Robert had inherited all the 
bravery of his family without that policy and dissinnilation 
which so deeply characterized his father. He could endure no 
conti'ol — not even from his father. 

He now openly aspired to independence ; he had the support 
of the young nobility and of the King of France, and he enter- 
tained an intense jealousy of his two brothers, William and 
Henry. 

William was now in Normandy, and called over an army of 
English soldiers, under command of his old captains, who soon 
put down the revolt. He then banished Robert with his adhe- 
rents and restored his authority as sovereign over all his do- 
minions. 

In the year 1087 William declared war against France, in- 
vaded that country, and laid everything waste with fire and 
sword. He took the to\\Tii of Mantes and reduced it to ashes ; 
5 



QQ WILLIAM 11 (RUFUS). [1087. 

but the progress of these hostilities was stopped by an accident, 
which soon put an end to his life. His horse starting aside sud- 
denly, he was thrown against the pommel of his saddle, causing 
a dangerous rupture, from which he shortly after died. 

Finding his end approaching, he endeavored to make atone- 
ment by presents to churchmen and monasteries, and sent orders 
for the release of Earl Morcar and other noble prisoners ; but it 
was with great difficulty he could be brought to pardon his 
half-brother Odo the bishop. 

His son Kobert was then at the court of France ; but he left 
him the duchy of Normandy as his birthright. To William, 
whom he praised as a dutiful son, he gave his conquest of Eng- 
land, and advised him to hasten over and secure it ; while to 
his younger son, Henry, he gave £5,000 in silver instead of do- 
maius, and some small possessions of his mother, Matilda. 

William died in the sixty-third year of his age, the twenty- 
first of his reign over England, and fifty-fourth over Normandy. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Malcolm III., Donald 
Bain, Duncan, Edgar ; France : Philip I. ; Emperor of the 
West : Henry TV. 

William II. (Rufus)— A.D. 1087-1100. 

Born in Nonnandy, 1056. 

Crowned September 26, 1087. 

Accidentally killed while hunting in the New Forest, August 3, 1100. 

Buried at Winchester. 

Never married. 

William — surnamed Rufus, or Red Head — third son of Wil- 
liam I. and his wife Matilda, was born in Normandy. Fie had 
no sooner received his father's letter, willing him the crown of 
England, than he started for that country to take measures for 
securing the government. Sensible that a deed so informal and 
so little prepared, which violated Robert's right might meet 
with great opposition, he trusted for success in his celerity. 
Having left St. Gervais before the king had breathed his last, 
he arrived in England before the news of his father's death had 
reached that kingdom. Pretending that he was acting under 
orders from the king, he seized the castles of Dover, Pevensey, 



10S7.] WILLIAM n. (RUFUS). ' Qf 

and Hastingg, whose situation rendered tliem o£ the greatest 
importance. He then got possession of the treasury at Win- 
chester, where he fonnd £60,000, by which he hoped to gain 
partisans for his cause. 

He found the h:)rd primate, Lanfranc, his friend, who, believ- 
ing his pretentions jnst, declared he would pay a willing obedi- 
ence to the last will of the Conqueror, his benefactor and friend. 
Having assembled such of the bishops and nobility as he could 
trust, Lanfranc instantly proceeded to the coronation of the 
new king, which was celebrated at Winchester on September 
26, 1087, on hearing of which Robert took peaceable possession 
of the duchy of Kormandy. 

But, though this partition appeared to have been made with- 
out violence or opposition, there were many causes for discon- 
tent in England. As the elder brother, Robert would have had 
a clearer title, the doubts that hung over the succession of the 
younger brother were very considerable ; and, besides this, the 
severence of the crowns of England and Kormandy was not 
agreeable to many of the ]S^orman barons, who possessed large 
estates in both countries, and who, uneasy at the separation of 
those governments, deemed it impossible to continue their alle- 
giance to two masters. They must necessarily resign either 
their ancient patrimony or their new acquisitions. Robert's 
title to the duchy they esteemed as incontestable, his claim to 
the English croM'n good, and they all desired that he, who 
alone had any rightful pretensions to tmite these states, should 
be put in possession of both. 

A comparison of the personal qualities of the two brothers 
led them to give the preference to Robert, who was brave, open, 
sincere, and generous ; even his faults of indolence and facility 
were not disagreeable to those haughty barons, who aifected in- 
dependence. AVhile William, though equally. brave, was haughty, 
violent, and tyrannical, and seemed to govern more through the 
fear, than the love, of his subjects. - And Odo, Bishop of Bai- 
eux, and Robert, Earl of Montaigne, half brothers of the Con- 
queror, envying the primate, Lanfranc, encouraged these motives 
ainong the disaifected, and engaged with them in a conspiracy 
to dethrone the king. The conspirators, retiring to their castles, 



68 WILLIAM 11 (RUFUS). [ lOSS-89. 

liastened to put themselves in a military position, expecting soon 
to l)e supported by a powerful army from Xormandy. 

The king, aware of his perilous position, endeavored to en- 
gage the affections of the native English, who, now thoroughly 
subdued, were glad to accept any terms that would mitigate the 
tyranny of the Norman nobles. They zealously embraced Wil- 
liam's cause upon receiving general promises of good treatment, 
and of enjoying the license of hunting in the royal forests. 

The king was soon in a situation to take the field, and as he 
knew the danger of delay, marched into Kent, where his uncles 
had seized the castles of Rochester and Pevensey. He first 
besieged Odo, the most formidable of the conspirators, in Ro- 
chester Castle. There were five hundred Normans shut up in 
that stronghold, amono- whom were manv powerful leaders. It 
was the height of summer, and the close atmosphere of the 
castle soon produced disease, a plague breaking out. The gar- 
rison were allowed to capitulate, and the Norman revolters 
marched out amid the cry from the English, of "a gallows for 
the bishop." Odo escaped beyond sea, and never returned. 
His possessions, which were enormous, were all confiscated. 
Pevensey met a like fate. The other disaffected nobles and 
bishops were subdued, propitiated, or banished from the king- 
dom. 

William had fitted out a powerful fleet, which prevented re- 
inforcements arriving from Normandy. The rebels now found 
safety only in flight or submission ; a large number were attaint- 
ed, and the king bestow^ed their estates on the Norman barons 
who had remained faithful to him. 

The king, now freed from tlie danger of insurrection, did not 
fulfil his promises made to the English, who soon found them- 
selves exposed to the same oppressions the}^ had suffered during 
the reign of the Conqueror, and their troubles increased by the 
violent temper of the present king. 

The primate, Lanfranc, died in 1089. This prelate had great 
influence over the king, and had kept the more prominent evils 
of his character under subjection. After Lanfranc's death the 
king allowed full scope to his tyranny, and soon began to op- 
press both the people and the church. lie appointed no sue- 



1090-91.] WILLIAM XL (RUFUS). gf) 

cesser to the primate, but held the revenues of the See of 
Canterbury in his own liands. lie soon found a more congenial 
minister than Lanfranc. There was at his court a Norman 
clerk of the name of Ralph, surnamed Flanibard, or Firebrand, 
a man of tiuent speech, sensual, and ambitious. He was a subtle 
financier, and he soon managed to swell the king's revenues by 
a stricter admeasurement of the lands of the kingdom than that 
of the Domesday Book. He seized the church properties, 
made exactions on the laity with no pretensions of justice, and 
even loosened the halter from the robber's neck, if he could 
promise any gain to the king. The courtiers consumed the sub^ 
stance of the country-people. The state of maimers at the court 
of Itufus is described as the most disgusting mixture of folly, 
licentiousness, and extravagance. 

In the year 1090 William invaded Normandy. The city of 
Rouen was incited to insurrection chiefly through the promises 
and bribes of William. Henry came to the aid of Robeit, 
although they had previously quarrelled, and through his de- 
termined boldness the revolt was quelled. But William advanced 
with a large army, and was prevented from commencing hostili- 
ties only by the good offices of the King of France ; and the 
nobility on both sides, connected by interest and alliance, nego- 
tiated a peace between the brothers — William receiving new ter- 
ritory by the possession of Eu, Aumale, Fescamp, and other 
places, for which he promised, in return, to assist Robert in 
subduiiig Main, which had rebelled, and that the Korman barons 
attainted in Robert's cause should be restored to their estates in 
England. The brothers also agreed that, on the death of either 
without issue, the survivor should inherit both dominions ; 
twelve of the most powerful barons on each side swore they 
>vould exercise their utmost power to the end that this compact 
should be fultilled. 

Flenry, disgusted that so little interest should have been 
shown in regard to himself, retired to St. Michael's Mount, a 
strong fortress on the coast of Normandy, where he was besieged 
by both armies, and, after being for some time deprived of 
water, had to capitulate. He was despoiled of his patrimony, 
and wandered about Europe for some time in great poverty. 



70 WILLIAM IL (RUFUS). [1092-1100. 

William, returning to England in 1002, repelled the invasions 
of the Welsh and the Scotch ; but a peace was concluded be- 
tween himself and Malcolm. 

Duke Ilobert visited England to obtain indemnity for posses- 
sions which he had surrendered in iS^ormandj, but obtained 
nothing. On his return, according to the custom of chivalry, 
Ilobert sent to England two heralds to denounce his brother as 
a perjured knight. William, like many other guilty men, would 
))ear no imputation upon his honor, and went to Xormandy to 
submit the points of dispute to arbitration. Twenty-four iS^or- 
man barons decided against him, lie then resolved upon war, 
and collected a large army at Hastings. But the war was not 
undertaken, and the soldiers were dismissed to their homes. 
. "W^illiam seized Carlisle, which was considered an appanage 
of the crown of Scotland. Here he founded a colony and 
built the present castle. Another quarrel was the consequence. 
Malcolm in\aded England with a large army. After ravaging 
Xorthumberland, he laid siege to Alnwick, where he was sur- 
prised, defeated, and slain, together with his son — some- say by 
treachery. The good Queen Margaret survived her husband 
and son only four days. William aided the family, and assisted 
in restoring tlie younger son to the throne. 

In .lUUC a new arrangement was entered into between the 
brothers : Ilobert pawned his dukedom to William for five 
years, for the sum of £10,(T00, to enable him to go on a crusade 
to the Holy Land. William raised the money by forcible extor- 
tions on his subjects. Soon after he was seized with a violent 
illness, and the clergy represented to him that he was in dan- 
ger of eternal perdition, if, before his death, he did not make 
atonement for the numberless impieties and sacrileges of which 
he had been guilty. But he soon after recovered and returned 
to his former violence and rapine. He detained in prison sev- 
eral persons whom he had ordered to be freed while he felt 
penitent, and, imitating his father's example, prohibited his 
subjects from recognizing the Pope unless authorized by liim to 
do so. 

In the year 1100 the Duke of Guienne needed money to 
assist him in his preparations for raising a large body of horse, 



1100.] WILLIAM II. (RUFUS), 71 

to be led by him against the Saracens, and offered to mortgage 
his dominions to William, who accepted his oifer, and had pre- 
pared a fleet and army to take possession of provinces of Guienne 
and Poiton, when an accident pnt an end to his life. While 
hunting in the Is^ew Forest, he had just dismounted when he was 
shot by a French gentleman named Walter Tyrrell, who, with- 
out informing any one of the accident, put spurs to his horse, 
reached the sea-shore, embarked on a vessel about to sail for 
France, and joined the Crusaders in an expedition against the 
Saracens — a penance he imposed upon himself for his involun- 
tary crime. Prince Henry, who had been hunting with the 
king, rode up shortly after, and after a glance at the body, gal- 
loped off to Winchester. 

The body of William was picked up by some of his servants, 
and being wrapped in a coarse cloak, was brought on a char- 
coal-burner's cart to Winchester. Pie was buried in the cathe- 
dral on the day after his death ; but, though many of his nobles 
attended, there were few mourners. 

The character of William " Ruf us " is thus described by an 
old writer : " All things that displeased God pleased him, and 
all things that God loved he hated deadly. On recovering 
from a sickness he had sworn that ' God should never have 
any good in him for all the evil he had brought upon him.' 
From that time he succeeded in evei-ything he undertook or 
M-ished for. The very land and sea seemed to serve his will, as 
if God would leave him without excuse by granting all he 
wished." 

William is described as short and stout, and from his florid 
complexion he was styled the Ped King. He was very strong 
and active, and, though easily excited to terrible fits of passion, 
was frank and familiar with his chosen associates, profuse in 
his gifts, and occasionally showed both forbearance and gener- 
osity, particularly to a resolute opponent. He led a most profli- 
gate life, was an open scoffer and contemner of religion, and 
suffered justice (or rather injustice) to be bought and sold. He 
thus gained a M^orse character than either his father or his 
brother, who, though quite as bad men, were more orderly in 
their conduct, and allowed no other tyranny than their own. 



72 HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). [IIOO. 

William was born in jSTormandy in 1056 ; was crowned Sep- 
tember 2G, 1087 ; never married. Accidentally killed Aiio-ust 
2, 1100, in the forty-fourth year of his age and thirteenth of 
his reign. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Henry. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Malcolm III., Donald 
Bain, Duncan II., Edg-ar. 



Henry I. (Beau Clerk)— A. D. 1100-1135. 

Bom at Selby, Yorkshire, 1068. 
Crowned August 5, 1100. 

Married, first, November 11, 1100, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., King- of 

. Scotland, by Margaret his wife, sister and heiress of Edgar Atheling, and 

daughter of Edward, son of Edmund " Ironsides." Through this jirincess 

the present royal family of England is direstly descended from Alfred the 

Great by Matilda his wife. Issue : 

William, born 1102 ; married, 1119, Isabella, daughter of Fulk, Count of An- 

jou ; lost at sea, November 25, 1120. No issue. 
Matilda, born 1104; married, 1114, the Emperor Henry V. ; she married, 
second, April ;i, 1127, Geoffrey Plantagenefc, Count of Anjou, and died Sep- 
tember 10, 1167, having had by him : 

Henry, who succeeded to the English throne. 
Geoffx-ey, Count of Nantes, died 1157, and 
William, Count of Poitou, died ll'GS. 
Married, second, February 11, 1121, AdeUza, daughter of the Duke of Lovaina 

No issue. 
Died at St. Denis, Normandy. 

Henry — suniamed Beau Clerk, or the Lettered Prince — was 
the fourth and youngest son of William tlie Conqueror and his 
wife Matilda of Flanders. He was the third monarch of the 
Norman line, but first of English birth, being born at Selby, in 
Yorkshire, in the year 1068. Henry, on the death of his 
father, was in his nineteenth year, and, with the £5,000 then 
bequeathed to him, bought from his brother Robert the prov- 
ince of C\>ntinten, comprising one-third of Xormandy. 

Entertaining the belief that he was leagued with William 
" Bufus," Bobert imprisoned him ; but he was released through 
the intercession of the Xorman barons. When AVilliam at- 
tacked Bobert, Henry sided with the latter, and displayed great 
energy, courage, and cruelty. At the revolt in Rouen, in 1000, 
the rebels were led by Conan, a rich bui-gess of that city. The 



1100.] HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). 73 

insurrection was put down, and Conan taken prisoner and led 
to the castle. Prince Henry took liini to the snmniit of a tower 
and bade liiin look at the beautiful prospect beneath them. 
" These are the things of which you desired to be master," said 
the prince to the citizen. " Take all my wealth for a ransom," 
cried the trembling prisoner. " By the soul of my mothei', I 
will take no ransom ; " and with these words Henry seized the 
wretched man and threw him from the battlements. 

The following year, Robert and William, becoming i-econciled, 
turned their combined forces against Henry, compelling him to 
surrender all his possessions. For several years he lived in 
seclusion in various places, and sometimes in want, until the 
people of Dunfret called upon him to rule over them. He 
made acquisitions at Robert's expense, became reconciled with 
William, and visited England. 

AYIiile hunting in the New Forest on August 2, 1100, he 
heard of William's death. He immediately rode to Winchester, 
hastened to the treasury, and demanded the keys. De Breteuil, 
the treasurer, refused to give them up, saying tliat Prince 
Henry, as well as himself, had paid homage to Robert, the 
elder brother, and that he was the riglitful successor. Henry 
drew his sword, and at length, by force and persuasion, obtained 
the royal treasures. 

He immediately hastened to London with the money, assembled 
some prelates and noblemen, whom he soon gained to his side by 
the assistance of the money or his aljilities and address, and was 
immediately proclaimed king. Three days after his brother's 
death the ceremony of his coronation was performed at London 
by Maurice, bishop of that see ; and thus, by courage, celerity, 
and determination, he seized the vacant throne. IN'o one had 
sufficient spirit or sense of duty to appear in behalf of Robert, 
then in the Holy Land, and the barons and the people acqui- 
esced in the usurpation. 

The kino;, fearino; that a crown o-ained ao;ainst all rules of 
justice would sit unsteadily on his head, resolved, by fair pro- 
fessions at least, to gain the affections of the j)eople. He there- 
fore passed a charter remedying many of the grievous oppres- 
sions complained of during the reigns of his father and brother ; 



'j'j. HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). [1100, 

made concessions to the clergy, and conciliated tliem by invit- 
ing Anselm back to England ; promised to remedy existing 
abuses and maintain the old Anglo-Saxon laws and usages. 
The charter he granted becoming the basis of all subsequent re- 
forms, he offered a pardon for all offences, and remitted all 
debts due the crown. 

To give greater effect and authenticity to these concessions, he 
caused a copy of the charter to be lodged in some abbey of each 
county for the information of all his subjects, and as a perpetual 
rule for their .government. But the grievances meant to be re- 
dressed were still continued to their full extent, and the king 
found often greater opposition when he enforced the laws than 
when he violated them. Fpon his accession he purged his 
government of the evil ministers of his l)rother's pleasures and 
the corrupt administrators of his oppressive exactions. ^ 

Duke Robert, after the conquest of Jerusaletn, had set out on 
his journey home. Passing through the Xorman dominions in 
Italy, he was cordially received by Geoffrey of Conversana, in 
Apulia, where he Ihigered long, and finally married Sibylla, the 
daughter of his entertainer. With his young and handsome 
wife he received a marriage portion sufficient to redeem his 
mortsaged dukedom. He arriv^ed in JSTormandv a few weeks 
after Henry had l)een firmly seated on the throne of England. 

Instead of attempting to assert his right, he wasted his wife's 
fortune on base favorites, abandoned himself to indolence, and, 
as he had done before, suffered his barons to make war on 
each other and rob and murder with impunity. 

The ISTormans in England soon showed that they were dissat- 
isfied with Henry's mode of government, which was strict and 
orderly, and they began confederating together to place Robert 
upon the throne, feeling secure of doing as they pleased under 
his indolent rule. 

Henry, to defeat their schemes, took the decided step of 
openly joining himself with the Saxons. He therefore took 
from a convent a princess of Saxon descent — Matilda, daughter 
of Malcolm III., King of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling. 
She had been educated under the care of her aunt, the Abbess 
of Wilton, who caused her to wear the veil to protect her from 



1101.] HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). ^^ 

the Xornian barons, who had seized the Saxon maidens for 
wives or mistresses. She was very dear to the Engiisli people 
in consequence of her connection with the old Saxon line. 

He had also recourse to the superstition of the people, and 
paid great court to the primate Anselm. lie promised him 
that he would have a strict regard to all ecclesiastical privileges, 
professed a great attachment to the Church of Rome, and prom- 
ised implicit obedience to the wdll of the Sovereign Pontiff. 
By these promises he gained the confidence of the primate, 
whose influence over the people and authority over the barons 
were of the greatest service to him, and, joined to the influence 
of the Earls of AVarwick and Mellant and a few powerful 
barons who still adhered to the present government, the army 
was retained in the king's interest. 

Henry, knowing that Flambard (created Bishop of Durham 
by the late king) was regarded as the chief instrument of the 
extortions of that reign, ordered him to be seized and confined 
in fetters in the Tower. 

The bishop, however, did not long remain a prisoner. As he 
was rich he made dainty feasts for his keepers, and while they 
were carousing he lowered himself from the window by means 
of a rope that his friends had sent him in a cask of wine, and 
escaped to Xormandy, where he became Duke Bobert's chief 
counsellor. He gave the duke to understand that the Xorman 
barons, and their Xorman followers, were all-powerful in Eng- 
land, and induced him to imdertake an invasion of that countrj', 
to secure the crown wrested from him during his absence in 
the Holy Land. By his activity troops were got ready and a 
fleet prepared, to which several of Henry's ships deserted. 

In July, 1101, Bobert landed at Portsmouth and was soon 
joined by a large body of the Xormans. Henry faced them 
with his Saxons, but he M^as too prudent to expose his untried 
troops ; he took the wiser course, and would not allow Bobert 
to bring him to a battle. Bobert then proposed to decide the 
quarrel by a single combat, but Henry declined this, as unsuita- 
ble to the dignity of a king. So the armies lay for several days 
in sight of each other without coming to action. Both princes 
were anxious about the result, and willingly listened to the 



76 HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). [1102-5. 

counsel of the Arclibishop Anselni and other leading noblemen 
who mediated between them. Henry then desired a private 
conference with his brother; thej met in the presence of the 
hostile troops, who formed a magniiicent circle around them, 
displaying the terrible and brilliant spectacle of the ^N^ormans 
and the English under arms. 

They were soon reconciled. Robert was of a generous and 
yielding nature. Henry was far-seeing and prudent. A treaty 
was concluded, of which the chief article was, that Robert should 
relinquish his claims upon the crown of England for a pension of 
three thousand marks a year, and Henry, on his part, promised to 
pardon his brother's adherents. They also agreed that if either 
died without issue, the other should succeed to his dominions, 
and that neither of them should ever after encourage, receive, 
or protect the enemies of the other. The rivalry of the two 
brothers was not subdued, but the blood of the two hostile races 
was no more to be poured out on English ground. 

After Duke Robert had remained a guest at the court of the 
king for some time, he and his troops returned to Normandy, 
and Henry disbanded his army. 

Henry was the first to violate the spirit of the treaty, subse- 
quenth' indicting, under different pretences, several noblemen, 
friends of Robert, who had favored the cause of the latter. 
They were banished the kingdom and their estates confiscated. 

Robert, angered by the fate of his friends, imprudently visited 
England to remonstrate with his brother against the breach of 
treaty, but he met with so bad a reception that lie feared for 
his own liberty, and was glad to purchase an escape hy resigning 
his annual pension. 

Henry occupied himself for several years in strengthening his 
position in England, and in 1105 paid a visit to Kormandy, and 
found the nobility there dissatisfied, and more disposed to pay 
submission to him than to their legal sovereign. The latter had 
lost his wife, and for two or three years liis conduct gave great 
public offence. Many of the nobles, who had also estates in 
England, gathered around him, and encouraged what was no 
doubt the secret desire of his heart, the possession of the duchy. 
Yet the brothers parted friends. On Henry's return to England 



11C6-19.] HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). fj^ 

he raised a large army, and tlie following year returned to Kor- 
mandj in a position to obtain possession of that duch}' by either 
corruption or violence. lie took Bayeux by storm, after an 
obstinate siege, and made himself master of Caen by the volun- 
tary submission of its inhabitants, but, being repulsed at Falaise, 
and winter approaching, he was forced to raise the siege, and 
returned to England, after giving assurance to his adherents in 
Normandy tliat he M'ould persevere in supporting and protect- 
ing them. 

The following year he renewed the invasion with the siege of 
Tinchebray. Robert was at length aroused from his lethargy, 
hastened to its relief, and seven battles were fought before its 
walls, the last on September 20, 1106. Henry was victorious 
and made ten thousand prisoners, among them his brother, Duke 
Robert, who w^as kept a prisoner for the remainder of his life in 
Cardiff Castle, and Edgar Atheling, who passed the remaining 
years of his eventful life in England, an object of pity rather 
than of fear. 

This victory was followed by the final reduction of Normandy, 
and having assembled the states Plenry received the homage of 
all. He then settled the o-overnment and returned to Eno-land 
at the end of the year. 

At the time of the battle of Tinchebray, Duke Robert had a 
son five years old, named William, the possible heir of the two 
kingdoms. Henry committed him to honest guardianship, but 
in another year repented of his honesty, and desired to get the 
young prince into his power. But De St. Saen fled with his 
charge and put him under the protection of LoUis, King of 
France, who used him to check the growing power of Henry, 
In 1119 he married the daughter of Fulk, Count of Anjou. 

The acquisition of Normandy was the great point of Henry's 
ambition, being the ancient patrimony of his family, and the 
only territory that gave him weight or consideration on the con- 
tinent ; but the injustice of his usurpation involved him in fre- 
quent wars, and obliged him to impose upon his English sub- 
jects many heavy and arbitrary taxes. Troul)les arising on the 
continent, Henry was obliged to remain in Normandy for two 
years, to the great discontent of the English. 



YS HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). [1119-20. 

Queen Matilda, widow of the Conqueror, died in the year 
Ills. She had long retired to the monastery of Westminster, 
wliere she spent her revenues for the relief of the poor and 
sick, and in other acts of charity. 

• Henry's right to the throne was now disputed by his nephew, 
Prince William of Kormandy, whose claims were supported by 
the Counts of Flanders and xVnjon, and the King of France. 

In 1119 Henry gained a victory over the French at Breteuil, 
which decided the war in his favor, and peace was made, in 
wliicli tlie interests of young William were entirely neglected. 
At the close of the year Henry prepared to leave >v\-)rmandy, 
for England. As he was about to embark there came to him a 
mariner, who said that Stephen, the son of Airard, Avas his 
father, and that Stephen was the owner of the ship that con- 
veyed the Conqueror to make war on Harold, and he asked the 
king to sail with him on his ship, the " Blanch-Xef." Henry re- 
plied that he had chosen his ship, but that his son might sail 
with the son of Airard. The king put to sea in the first watch 
of the night, and reached England in safety. The young Prince 
William and his companions went on board full of merriment 
and wine, and the rowers and steersmen were wild with drink. 
As tliey pulled out of the harbor, incapable of directing the 
vessel, she struck upon a rock, filled, and went down. William 
got safely into another boat, but hearing the cries of his sister 
for assistance, returned to help her, Avlien. the crew rushing 
into his boat, she upset and filled, aud every soul perished. 

When the news reached England the king wrs in great anx- 
iety, but no one dared to tell him of the sad event. By a con- 
certed plan, a boy threw himself at the king's feet, weeping 
bitterly, and told his tale. Henry instantly fell to the ground, 
and was carried to his chamber, where he remained for some 
time. He was never seen to smile again, nor did he ever 
recover his wonted cheerfulness. 

The death of William may be regarded in one respect as a 
misfortune to the English, because it was the immediate source 
of those civil wars which, after the death of the king, caused 
such confusion in the kingdom. 

The Court of Exchequer, as a financial body, was first estab- 



1121-33.] HENRY I. (BEAU CLERK). Y9 

lishecl in this reign. It took its name from a chequered table 
at which they sat, on which accounts were rendered. 

Henry being now a widower, without male issue, married, in 
1121, Adelaide, the daughter of the Duke of Louvain, but she 
brought him no children. 

Prince "William of Normandy succeeded to the earldom of 
Flanders in right of his mother, and was now in a position 
of great power and prosperity. 

The Emperor Henry V. being dead, his widow Matilda, 
Henry's daughter, returned to England. At a solemn assem- 
bly of bishops and nobles at Windsor, on the 25th of De- 
cember, 112G, it was declared that the ex-empress Matilda 
was the next heir to the throne, failing all future legitimate 
male issue to the king. They all swore to maintain her suc- 
cession. 

An alliance with the Plantagenets was one of the great ob- 
jects of Henry's ambition. Fulk Y., Earl of Anjou, had sur- 
rendered his earldom to his eldest son, Geoffrey Plantageuet, 
and Henry negotiated a marriage between him and his daugh- 
ter, the Empress Matilda. It was celebrated at Rouen at 
Whitsuntide, April 3, 1127. The marriage was not a happy 
one. The king had constantly to interfere between the hus- 
band and wife. Matilda had much of her father's imperious 
spirit, and Geoffre}" made many demands which Henry resist- 
ed. In the year 1133 Matilda bore a son, Henry, who afterAvard 
succeeded to the throne. The oath to maintain the succession 
was renewed, and Henry was freed from much disquiet by the 
death of his nephew William, Count of Flanders, who died from 
the effects of wounds received in battle. 

In 1133, England being tranquil, Henry again visited ISTor- 
mandy, but this time out of tenderness to his daughter Matilda, 
to whom he Avas greatly attached. The pleasure of his daughter's 
company made his residence there long and agreeable, and he 
thought of passing the remainder of his days with her, when 
an invasion of the Welsh obliged him to return to England. 
He was preparing for his journey when he was seized Avith 
sudden illness at the Castle of Lions, near Rouen, from eating 
too plentifully of lampreys, and after four days' illness, the 



go STEPHEN. [1135. 

M'liile beating his breast and lamenting his sins, he died on 
December 1, 1135, in the sixty- sev^enth year of his age, and 
thirty-fifth of liis reign. 

Henry was one of the most accomplished princes that ever 
filled the English throne, and possessed all the great qnalities 
of body and mind, natnral and acqnired, to fit him for his high 
station. From his great progress in literature he acquired the 
name of " Beauclerc," or the scholar. His person ^vas manly, 
and his manners affable and engaging, without allowing famil- 
iarity. He was much addicted to women, and it is said he had 
seyen illegitimate sons and six daughters born to him. Hunt- 
ing was his favorite amusement. 

CoNTEMi»oRARY Ri LERs. — Scotkud : Edgar, Alexander I., 
David I. ; France : Philip I., Louis VI. ; Emperors of the 
West : Henry lY., Henry Y., Lothaire II. 



Stephen — A.D. 1135-1154. 

Born at Blois, 1104. 

Crowned December 2G, 1135. 

Married Matilda, daughter and heiress of Eustace, Count of Boulogne, by 

Mary his wife, daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland, who died 1151, 

.Had issue : 
Eustace, Count of Boulogne, who married Constance, sister of Louis VII. of 

France. 
William, Count of Montaigne, died 1159. 

Mary, Countess of Boulogne, married Matthew, son of the Count of Flanders. 
Died at Dover, October 25, 1154. 
He compromised with the Empress Matilda that he should reign during his 

life, and then the crown to descend to her son, Henry Plantagenet. 

Stephen-, son of Stephen, Count of Blois, and Adela, the 
fourth daughter of William the C^onqueror, was born at Blois 
in the year 1101. 

Henry left, ]\y will, his daughter Matilda heir to all his do'- 
minions, without making any mention of her husband Geoffrey 
Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and the failure of a male heir to 
the kingdom of England and diichy of iS^ormandy seemed to 
leave the succession open, without a rival, to the Empress Ma- 
tilda, and as Henry had made all his nobles, in both states, 
swear fealty to her, he supposed they would not keep her from 



1135.] STEPHEN. 81 

her hereditary right, or depart from their sworn engagements ; 
but the irregular manner in which lie had acquired the crown 
liimself might have instructed him that neither his English nor 
liis Xorman subjects were as yet capable of adhering to a strict 
rule of government. 

Adela, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, married 
Stephen, Count of Blois, and had brought him several sons, 
among wdiom Stephen and Henry, the two youngest, were in- 
vited to England, by the late king. Henry had entered the 
Church, and was created Abbot of Glastonbury, and afterward 
Bishop of Winchester, Stephen had, from his uncle's liberality, 
obtained still more solid advantages, and through the king's in- 
fluence had married Matilda, daughter of Eustace, Count of 
Boulogne, who brought him, besides that feudal sovereignty in 
France, vast property in England, conferred on that family by 
William. Stephen also acquired by this marriage a new con- 
nection with the royal family of England, as Mary, his wife's 
mother, was sister to David, King of Scotland, and to Matilda, 
the first wife of Henry I., and mother to the Empress Ma- 
tilda. 

Henry took pleasure in enriching Stephen, and he, in return, 
professed great attachment to his uncle, and appeared zealous 
for the succession of Matilda ; when the barons swore fealty to 
her, he contended to be the first to give her this testimony of his 
zeal and fidelity. Meanwhile, he continued to cultivate, by 
every art of popularity, the friendship of the English people, 
and many virtues with wliicli he seemed to be endowed favored 
the success of his intentions, and by his bravery, activity, and 
address, acquired the esteem of the barons. 

No sooner had Henry breathed his last, than Stephen, in- 
sensible to all the ties of gratitude and fidelity, and blind to 
danger, gave full rein to his criminal ambition, and trusted that 
even without any previous intrigue the celerity of his enter- 
prise, and the boldness of his attempt, might overcome the weak 
attachment which the English and Xormans in that age bore to 
the laws and to the rights of their sovereign. He hastened over 
to England, and, though the citizens of Dover and Canterbury 
shut their gates against him, he did not stop until he arrived 
6 



S2 STEPHEN. [1135. 

at London, where he was immediately proclaimed king by the 
people. 

His next point was to gain the good-will of the clei-gy, and 
throngh them receive the ceremony of the coronation. His 
brother, the Bishop of Winchester, was nsefnl to him in this 
respect. He, with the Bishop of Salisbury, applied to the Arch- 
bishop of C^anterbui-y, and requested him, in virtue of his office, 
to give the royal nnction to Stephen. The primate refused to 
perform that ceremony, owing to his allegiance to Matilda, but 
his opposition was overcome by a dislionoral)le expedient. 
Stephen's friends, procm-ing Hugh Bigod, steward of the house- 
hold of the late king, to declare that on his deathbed Hem-y 
had shown a dissatisfaction witli his daughter Matilda, and had 
expressed his intention of leaving the Count of Boulogne heir 
to his dominions. 

The primate believing, or feigning to believe, Bigod's testi- 
mony, anointed Stephen, and put the crown upon his head, 
December 20, 1135. And from this religious ceremony, that 
prince, without either hereditary title, or -the consent of the 
nobility or people, was allowed to proceed in the exercise of the 
sovereign authority. Yery few barons attended his coronation, 
but none opposed it. 

Stephen, that he might further secure his tottering throne, 
passed a charter, in which he made liberal promises to all orders, 
of men ; to the clergy, that he would speedily till all ^:acant 
benefices; to the nobility, that he, would -reduce the royal forests 
to their ancient boundaries, and correct all encroachments ; and 
to the people, that he would remit the tax of the Danegeld, and- 
restore the laws of King Edward. 

The late king had a great treasure at Winchester, which 
Stephen immediately seized, and used to purchase the assistance 
of the clergy and nobility ; but not trusting to this frail secm-ity, 
invited from Brittany and Flanders numbers of bravoes and 
disorderly soldiers, with which almost every country in Europe 
then abounded. 

These mercenary troops guarded his throne, by the terrors of 
the sword. And Stephen, that he might overawe all malcon- 
tents by new and additional terrors of religion, procured a 



113C-3S.] STEPHEN. 83 

"bull" from Rome, whicli ratified his title. The Pope, findino- 
he was in possession of the tlirone, and pleased with an appeal 
to his authority, very readily granted him his desire. 

Matilda and her husband M^ere as unfortunate in ]S^ormandy 
as they were^ in England. Many Norman barons, moved by 
hereditary animosity against the house of Anjou, applied to 
Stephen and offered him possession of their government. 

He visited Normandy in 1136, and arranged all differences, 
concluding a treaty with Geoffrey to continue two years. 

The clergy could now hardly be called subjects of the crown, 
so they added to their oaths of allegiance this condition : that 
they were only bound so long as the king defended ecclesiastical 
liberties and supported the discipline of tlie Church. 

The barons, in return for their submission, exacted toi-ms 
still more destructive to the public peace, as well as of the royal 
authority. Many of them required the right of fortifying their 
castles and of putting themselves in a posture of defence, and 
the king found himself totally unable to refuse his consent. 

All England was inmiediately filled with these fortresses, 
which the nobles garrisoned either with their vassals or mer- 
cenary and licentious soldiers who flocked to them from all 
quarters. Unbounded rapine was the consequence of this sup- 
port. Wars between the nobles were carried on with the ut- 
most fury in every quarter ; the nobility assumed the right of 
coining money and of exercising, without appeal, every act of 
jurisdiction, and the inferior gentry and common people found 
no security by the laws. 

During this dissolution of sovereign authority, the people 
were obliged, for their own safety, to pay court to some neigh- 
boring baron, and purchase his protection. 

In 1138, David, King of Scotland, invaded England at the 
head of a large army to assert the claim of his niece, Matilda, 
to the crown, which he had sworn to uphold. He advanced on 
Carlisle and Newcastle, committing the greatest devastations, 
which enraged the northern noblemen, who otherwise might 
have been inclined to join him ; and the Earls of Albemarle, 
Piercy, Mowbray, and others assembled a large force, and met 
the Scots at North Allerton ; and on August 22, 1138, the 



84 STEPHEN. [1139. 

bat lie of the Standard Avas fought. The Scots were defeated, 
and the king and liis son narrowly escaped falling into the 
hands of the English The following year a peace was made. 
This success overawed the malcontents in England, and might 
have given some stability to the throne, had Stephen not been 
so elated with his success as to engage in a controversy with the 
clergy, mIio were at that time much too powerful for any 
monarch, and this quarrel, joined to so many other grievances, 
increased the discontent of the people. 

The advantage was taken by the Empress Matilda, and on 
September 30, 1139, she landed at Arundel, accompanied by 
her illegitimate brother, Robert, Duke of Gloucester, and a 
retinue of one hundred and fifty knights. She fixed her resi- 
dence in that castle, and immediately sent messengers to her 
partisans in every county of England to take up arms; 

The whole country was struck with alarm, and men's minds 
were agitated in various ways. Those who secretly or openly 
favored the invader were roused to more than nsual activity 
agaiiist the king, while his own friends were terrified. 

Stephen invested the castle of Arundel, but, in the most ro- 
mantic spirit of chivalry, he permitted the empress to pass out 
and join her brother at Bristol, where he had previously gone, 
and Avhere lier party was now largely augmented. 

The war now became general, spreading over the whole 
kingdom. The castles of the nobility became receptacles for 
licensed robbers, who, sallying forth day and night, committed 
excesses everywhere : putting their captives to torture, in order 
to make them reveal their treasure ; sold their persons into 
slavery, and burnt their houses. Such a state of affairs con- 
tinued for about two years, Matilda's and Stephen's forces meet- 
ing with varied success. They had many fruitless negotiations 
and treaties of peace, mIucIi never interrupted the constant de- 
struction of life and property, until an event occurred which 
promised to end the war. 

The Earl of Chester and his half-brother, "William de Ron- 
mare, who had l)een playing fast and loose with both parties, 
now became partisans of Matilda. They surprised the castle of 
Lincoln ; but the citizens, who were better affected toward 



1141.] STEPHEN. 35 

Steplien, called liim to their aid. lie immediately besieged the 
castle, in hopes of making himself master of the place, either 
by assault or famine. 

The Earl of Gloucester hastened with an army to the relief 
of his friends, and Steplien, informed of his approach, met him. 
A great battle ensued, in which victory fell to Gloucester, and 
Steplien was taken prisoner, and sent in close custody to Bristol 
Castle, where at first he was treated with great consideration, 
but soon after, on some suspicion, was cast into prison and 
loaded with irons. 

Stephen's party was entirely broken up by the captivity of 
their king, and the barons came in daily from all quarters, and 
did homage to Matilda. That princess, however, amidst all her 
prosperity, knew she was not secure of success unless she could 
gain the confidence of the clergy, and as the conduct of the 
]3riniate had been of late very ambiguous, and he had sho^vn 
his intention of rather humbling his brother, the king, than 
ruining him, she emploj'ed every device to gain him to her 
interests. She had a conference with him at Winchester, and 
promised him, on oath, that if he would acknowledge her as 
sovereign, and recognize her title as the sole descendant of the 
late king, and M^ould again subniit to the allegiance which he, 
as well as the rest of the kingdom, had sworn to her, he should 
in return be entire master of the government, and, in particular, 
should at his pleasure dispose of all vacant bishoprics and ab- 
beys. 

Tlie Earl of Gloucester, her brother, and others of the leading 
nobility, became guaranties for the observance of these engage- 
ments, and the primate was at last induced to promise his alle- 
giance to her. He then conducted her to the cathedral, and 
with great solemnity, in the presence of many bishops and ab- 
bots, pronounced curses on those wdio cursed her, poured out 
blessings on those who blessed her, granted absolution to such 
as were obedient to her, and excommunicated those who Avere 
rebellious. 

Matilda, that she might further insure the attachment of the 
clergy was willine; to receive the crown from their hands, and 
instead of assembling the States of the kingdom, which the 



86 STEPHEN. [1141. 

constitution required, she was content tliat tlie primate should 
assemble an ecclesiastical synod, and that her title to the throne 
should there be acknowledged. 

After Easter a great council of prelates was called by the pii- 
mate, when that unscrupulous churchman boldly denounced his 
brother, and invoked the assembly to elect a sovereign, and with 
an amount of arrogance unprecendented, asserted the notorious 
untruth, that the right of electing a king of England principally 
belonged to the clergy. He stated that his brother Stephen had 
been permitted to reign, but before ascending the throne, liad 
seduced them by fair promises of honoring the church, of main- 
taining the laws, and of reforming abuses ; and he was sorry to 
say he was found wanting in his engagements, and the most 
wanton disorders were the consequence. That having inv^oked 
the divine assistance, he now pronounced Matilda, the only de- 
scendant of Henry, their late sovereign. Queen of England. 
The Avhole assembly, by their acclamation, or by silence, gave, 
or seemed to give, their assent to this declaration. Tlie only 
laymen sunmioned to this synod or council, which decided the 
fate of the crown, were a few citizens of London, but they were 
not allowed to vote or give their opinion, but to submit to the 
decrees of the council. 

By the prudent conduct of the Duke of Gloucester, Matilda's 
authority appeared to be established, but affairs did not long 
continue in this situation. . 

The queen, besides the disadvantage of her sex, which weak- 
ened her influence over a turbulent and martial people, was of 
a passionate, imperious spirit, and did not know how to soften 
the harshness of a refusal. It was June Sltli before the Lon- 
doners would consent to acknowledge her as queen. Many 
parts of the kingdom had then submitted to her government, 
and she entered London with great state. Her first act was to 
demand subsidies of the citizens, and when they said their wealth 
was greatly diminished by the troubled state of the kingdom, 
she broke forth into iuigo\'ernable rage. 

The vigilant queen of Stephen, who kept possession of Kent, 
now approached the city with a numerous force, and by her 
envoys demanded her husband's freedom, and offered as one 



1142-48.] STEPHEN. 87 

condition, if lie were released, that he should renounce the 
crown, and retire into a monastery, but the queen rejected the 
petition in a haughty manner. The primate, who had prob- 
ably never been sincere in his compliance with Matilda's gov- 
ernment, availed himself of the dissatisfaction caused by her 
imperious conduct, and secretly instigated the Londoners in 
revolt. 

A consj^iracy was formed to seize the person of the queen, 
and she saved herself by a precipitate retreat. She lied to 
Oxford, and then to Winchester, whither the primate, to save 
appearances, had previously retired ; but, having assembled all 
his retainers, he openly joined his force to that of the citizens 
of London and to Stephen's mercenary troops ; and the com- 
bined force besieged the queen at Winchester, who, after being- 
hard pressed by famine, made her escape, but in her flight the 
Earl of Gloucester fell into the hands of the enemy. The 
queen, sensible of his worth, consented to his exchange for 
Stephen on equal terms, and the civil war was again kindled 
with greater fury than ever. 

The Earl of Gloucester, on being released, finding both sides 
evenly balanced, went over to Normandy, which, during 
Stephen's captivity, had submitted to the Count of Anjou, and 
he persuaded Geoffrey to allow his eldest son Henry, a young 
prince of great promise, to take a journey to England, and ap- 
pear at the head of his partisans there. This expedition pro- 
duced nothing decisive. 

Stephen took Oxford after a long siege. Pie was defeated 
by the Duke of Gloucester at Wilton, and the queen, being har- 
assed with varying fortunes and continued dangers to herself 
and family, at last retired into Xormandy in ll-tG, and shortly 
after the Earl of Gloucester died. The war had now raged for 
years, and the condition of England was most deplorable. 

In the year 11-18 Prince Henry had attained his sixteenth 
year, and was desirous of receiving the honor of knighthood. 
He journeyed to Scotland with a large retinue to receive it from 
the hands of his granduncle, David, King of Scotland. He re- 
mained some time with the king, and made several incursions 
into England, and by his valor in war and prudent conduct 



88 STEPHEN. [1150-53. 

raised the hopes of his party, and showed signs of those quali- 
ties which he afterward displayed when he ascended the throne 
of England. Soon after his return to Normandy he was, by 
Matilda's consent, invested in that duchy, and by the death of 
liis father Geoffrey, which happened in the following year, 
1150, took possession of Anjou and Maine, and concluded a 
marriage which brought him a great accession of power, and 
rendered him extremely formidable to his rival. 

Eleanor, the daughter and heir of AVilliam, Duke of Guienne 
and Earl of Poitou, had been married sixteen years to Louis 
VII., King of France, and had accompanied him on a crusade 
ao-ainst the Saracens, but havins:: lost her affection for her hus- 
band, and even fallen under suspicion of a liaison with a hand- 
some Saracen, Louis procured a divorce from her, and restored 
her those provinces which, by her marriage, she had annexed to 
France. 

Young Henry, neither discouraged by the inequality of years 
nor by the reports of her flirtations, made a successful court- 
ship, and marrying her six weeks after her divorce, in 1152, got 
possession of all her dominions as her dowry. The lustre which 
this alliance gave him had such an effect in England that when 
Stephen, desirous of insuring the crown to his son Eustace, re- 
quired the Archbishop of Canterbury to anoint that prince as 
his successor, the primate refused compliance, and made his 
escape beyond sea to avoid the violence of the king. 

In 1153 Prince Henry arrived in England with a considerable 
force, met and defeated Stephen at Malmesbury ; but the lead- 
ing nobility on both sides interposed to bring about a peace, 
whicli Avas facilitated by the death of Stephen's eldest son 
Eustace. 

By the treaty of Winchester, November 7, 1153, it was agreed 
that Stephen should remain king of England during his life- 
time, and that he should be succeeded by Ilenrv, and that Wil- 
liam, Stephen's son, should retain his patrimonial estate acquired 
by his marriage, or otherwise, before he became king. 

Stephen did not survive this treaty a year. His reign was 
one of the most miserable that England has ever passed through. 

Steplieu's personal character, allowing for the injustice of his 



1154.] STEPHEN. §9 

usurpation, appears not liable to any great exception, and lie 
seems to have been well qualified, had he succeeded to a just 
title, to have, promoted the happiness and prosperity of his sub- 
jects. He was possessed of industry, activity, and courage, 
though not endowed with sound judgment, and never indulged 
in cruelty or revenge. He died October 25, 1154, in the fiftieth 
year of his age and nineteenth of his reign, and was succeeded 
by Henry Plantagenet. 

CoNTEMPORAiiY RuLERS. — Scotlaud I Doiiald I., Malcolm lY.; 
France : Louis VI. (the Fat), Louis VII. Emperors of the 
West : Lothaire II., Conrad III., Frederick I. 




THE PLANTAGENETS. 



A.D. 11B4-1486. 



An.tou, an ancient province of northwestern France, chiefly 
constituted the present department of Maine-et-Loir. During 
the Frankish and feudal eras its counts played an important 
part in European history. The eldest branch of the Anjon 
family traced its descent to the days of Charles the Bald, in the 
ninth century. 

Among these celel)rated counts those of the name of Fonlkes 
or Fnlk were most distinguished as crusaders, particularly Fulk 
Y., or Fulk the Black. It is said in his youth he burned a wife 
at the stake, and led her to her doom decked out in his gayest 
attire. lie afterward waged a bitter war against his son, and 
exacted from him, when vanquished, a humiliation which men 
reserved for the deadliest of their foes. 

" Yon are conquered ! You are conquered," shouted the father, 
in fierce exultation, as the son, bridled and saddled like a beast 
of burden, crawled for pardon to his father's feet. Fearing the 
end of the world drove Fulk on a pilgrimage to the holy 
sepulchre ; barefoot, and M'ith a halter round his neck, he al- 
lowed himself to be scourged M'ith broom-twigs of the jjlanta 



1154.] HENRY II. 91 

genista, and from tliat circumstance assumed the name of Plan- 
tagenet. He was succeeded by liis son Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
who married Matilda, only surviving cliild and heiress of King 
Henry I. of England, fourth son of William the Conqueror, 
and widow of Henry V., Emperor of the West. 

By this marriage Matilda bore a son, Henry, who became 
Henry II., King of England, and first of the Plantagenet line. 

This rule continned until the year 1-185, M'hen the victory of 
Posworth Field transferred the crown to the house of Tudor. 

The name is now borne by the Duke of Buckingham and 
Chandos. 

Henry II. — A.D. 1154-1189. 

Born at Le Mans, Normandy, 1133. 

Crowned December 19, 1154. 

Married, in 1151, Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII., King- of France, 

daughter of the fifth Duke of Aquitaine, who died June 2G, 1302. Issue : 
William, born 1152 ; died in 1156. 
Henry, born 1155, crowned, by command of his father, King of England, July 

15, 1170 ; married, 1173, Margaret, daughter of Louis VII., and was 

again crowned at Winchester ; died 1183. 
Richard, successor to the crown. 
Geoffrey, Earl of Bretagne, who was accidentally slain in a tournament at 

Paris, 1186. 
John, successor to his brother Richard. 
Maud, married Henry V., Duke of Saxony ; died 1189. 
Eleanor, married Alfonso VIII., King of Castile ; died 1214. 
Joan, married, first, William II., King of Sicily, and second, Raymond, Covmt 

of Toulouse ; died September 4, 1195. 

Henky, the first of the Plantagenet kings, was the son of 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. and his wife, the Em- 
press Matilda, heiress and only surviving child of Henry I., 
fourth son of AVilliam the Con(|ueror. 

He was born at Le Mans, in Maine, in the year 1133, and was 
educated in Xormandy and England. He was engaged in the 
siege of a castle on the frontiers of Xormandy when he heard 
of Stephen's death, and he made it a point of honor not to de- 
part from his enterprise until he had brought it to an issue. 
He then set oiit on his journey with his queen, and was received 
in England on December 8, 1154, with the acclamations of all 
classes, M'ho SAvore with pleasure the oath of fealty and obedi- 



92 HENRY II. [1154. 

ence to liim, and he was crowned at Westminster Abbey eleven 
days after. 

After the long troubles of the reign of Stephen, it was not 
without hope of a qiiiet future that the people of England saw 
a young prince enter upon the kingly office with an undisputed 
title. 

The personal character of Henry gives a distinctiye color to 
the events of his reign, and especially in his great contest to 
maintain the supremacy of the ciyil power over the ecclesiasti- 
cal. To repair the evils of the reign of Stephen required in the 
new goyernment the rare union of vigor and moderation. 
Though a young man of strong passions, Henry held oyer them 
the control of a firm will and a commanding intellect. He 
Avent steadily to his great work of substituting law and order 
for yiolence and confusion. 

He brought to the throne a great reputation for talent and 
courage, and his first acts corresponded with the high idea en- 
tertained of his abilities. He immediately dismissed all the 
mercenaries who had committed such great disorders in the 
country together with Ypres, their leader, the friend and con- 
fidant of Stephen ; he revoked all the grants made by his pre- 
decessor, even those which necessity extorted from the Empress 
Matilda ; and that princess, who had resigned her rights in 
favor of Henry, made no opposition to a measure so necessary 
for supporting tlie dignity of the crown. 

Henry had inherited Anjou and Touraine from his father ; 
Maine and JSTormandy from his mother ; and the seven prov- 
inces of the south — Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, the 
Limousin, the Angoumois, and Guienne — as a dowry of his wife. 
The actual domains of Louis VII. were far smaller than his 
own. 

He improved the coinage, which had been debased in the 
last reign; he was rigorous in the execution of justice, and in 
the suppression of robbery and violence ; and that he might 
restore authority to the laws, he ordered all the newly erected 
castles to be demolished, which had proved so many sanctuaries 
to freebooters and rebels. 

The Earl of Albemarle, Mortimer, Iloger, son of Milo of 



1155-57.] HENRY 11. 93 

Gloucestei-, and the Earl of Hereford, were inclined to malvo 
some resistance to this order, but the approach of the king 
with his army soon obliged them to submit. 

Everything being restored to full tranquillity in England, 
Henry applied to the Itoman See to give him a dispensation 
from his oath, that he should resign his French possessions on 
accession to the throne of England to his brother Geoffrey, 
which he said he had blindly taken. Kicholas Breakspear, 
Po'pe Adrian lY., had just ascended the papal throne — the only 
Englishman who ever attained that honor — and he was only 
too glad to grant the formidable king's desire. 

Geoffrey was not so easily satisfied, so he assembled an 
army and took possession of a considerable part of Aujou and 
Maine. 

Henry immediately left for the continent, leaving his king- 
dom in charge of Robert of Leicester, his great justiciary. He 
quickly sul:)jected Geoffrey, and gave him a pension to compen- 
sate him for the loss of his coronet, when he retired into the 
province of Nantz, which tlie inhabitants, who had expelled 
Count lloel, their j)rince, had put into his hands. His French 
provinces having all returned to their allegiance, Henry did 
homage to Louis of France for all these vast possessions, and 
Louis "had reason to tremble," whilst he received Henry's 
fealty. 

On his return to England in 1157, the king, not unnaturallj', 
sought to recover that power which England had lost to Scot- 
land during the reign of Stephen. The counties of IN^orth- 
umberland and Cumberland had passed into the possession of 
the Scottish crown. Their surrender was demanded, which 
could not be resisted, and they were given up, and the young 
king Malcolm did homage to Henry for Lothian. 

But there was a part of the British dominions which did not 
promise so easy a settlement. Wales, during the contest be- 
tween Stephen and Matilda, had, under brave chieftains, recov- 
ered much of its ancient territory from the English, and to 
assert his authority over the Welsh was now Henry's policy. 
He marched into Xorth Wales, and from the natural fastnesses 
of that locality he was brought into great difficulties, and even 



r)-J- HEJTRY 11 [115S-63. 

clanger; his vanguard was put to rout, and his standard-hearer, 
seized with a panic, tlirew down the standard and took to 
flight, exchiiniing " The king is shiin ! " and had not Henry im- 
mediately appeared in person and led the troops, the conse- 
quences might have proved fatal to the whole army. The 
Welsh soon after snhmitted. 

Geoffrey, the king's brother, died soon after he had ac- 
quired possession of ISTantz, and Henry laid claim to tlie 
country as heir to his brother, and went over to support liis 
pretensions by force of arms. Conan, Duke of Brittany, 
claimed that ISTantz had l)een separated lately, by rel)ellion, 
from his duchy, to which by right it belonged, and on Geof- 
frey's death, took possession of the disputed territorv. 

Lest Louis, King of France, should interfere in the contro- 
versy, Henry paid him a visit, and so allured him tliat an alli- 
ance was formed, and they agreed that young Henry, heir to 
the English throne, should be affianced to Louis's daughter 
Margaret, then only five years old. 

Henry was now secure of not meeting with any interruption 
from the French king, and advanced with his army into Brit- 
tany, and L^uke Conan, in despair, delivered Nantz up to him. 
The Duke of Brittany died about seven years after, and Henry 
put himself in possession of that duchy also. 

In 1151) disputes arose about the title of the county of Tou- 
louse, in which Henry felt himself concerned, through his mar- 
riage with (^ueen Eleanor. He raised an army in that part of 
jSformandy distant from that country, and invaded that prov- 
ince, and after taking Ycrdun, C^astelneu, and other places, he 
besieged the capital, and was likely to prevail, when King 
Louis threw himself into the place. Henry was urged to 
prosecute the siege and take Louis prisoner, but he declared he 
would not attack a place defended by the king in j)erson, and 
hnmediately raised the siege. 

He then marched into Xormandy, to protect that province 
against an incursion made by the Count of Drieux. War was 
now openly carried on between the two monarchs, but produced 
no particular effect. It soon ended in a peace, and Henry re- 
turned to Eno-land in 1162. 



1162.] HENRY 11. 95 

In tliat year tlie usurpations of tlie clergy, wliieli had at first 
been gradual, were now so marked that Henry was determined 
to curb them, as he found it became necessary to determine 
whether he or the clergy, particularly the Archbishop of Can- 
terbury^, Thomas a Becket, ruled. From the commencement of 
his reign he had shown a fixed purpose to repress clerical usur- 
pations, and he was now determined to continue in that purpose. 
On the death of Theobald, Henry advanced his chancellor, 
Becket, to that see, as one on whose compliance he could entirely 
depend, 

Thomas a Becket was the first man of English descent who, 
since the Norman conquest, had risen to any considerable station. 
He was born of reputable parents, in the city of London, and 
being endowed with industry and capacity, soon worked his wa}^ 
in the church, until at last he had attained the highest position 
as well as the favor of the king. But he now became the most 
austere of churchmen and the most vehement champion of the 
independence of his order, and placed himself in direct opposi- 
tion to the king. His first act after his consecration as arch- 
bishop was, Avithout consulting the king, to return to his hands 
the commission of chancellor, pretending that he must thence- 
forth detach himself from secular affairs, and be solely employed 
in the exercise of his spiritual functions, but in reality that he 
might break off all connection with the king, and apprised him 
that Becket, as Primate of England, was now become an entirely 
new person. He now wore sackcloth next his skin, and changed 
it so seldom that it Avas filled with dirt and vermin. His usual 
diet was bread, his drink water, which he rendered more un- 
palatable by the mixture of unsavory herbs and other penances- 
All men of penetration now saw that he was meditating some 
great design, and that the amlntion and ostentation of his char- 
acter had turned itself toward a new and more dangerous object. 
Becket did not wait until Henry should commence his projects 
against the ecclesiastical power, which he knew had been formed 
by that prince. He was himself the aggressor, and attempted 
to overawe the king by the intrepidity and boldness of his ac- 
tions. He summoned some of the nobility to surrender their 
baronies, to others he presented them without regard of law. 



96 HENRY IL [1163-64. 

The king encouraged the nobles to resist, and Becket excom- 
municated some of them> and thougli he afterward relieved 
them from the penalties, he had made enemies who had deter- 
mined to ruin him. 

This was soon brought about, under pretence of the king's 
love for justice. lie summoned Becket and the other bishops 
to an assembly at Westminster, where he complained of the 
proceedings of their courts, which, he said, allowed priests who 
were guilty of great crimes to go unpunished, and for remedy 
of this he required that the clergy should, both in person and 
property, be subject, not to the rule of the bishops, but to the 
ordinary laws. 

Becket and the bishops at first absolutely refused compliance, 
but being threatened with imprisonment they at length gave 
way, and promised to observe them. Becket, however, soon 
bitterly repented of M'hat lie had done ; he looked upon himself 
as the cause of the weakness of his brethren, and he formally 
retracted his consent. In consequ'ence another assembly was 
. held at Northampton, to which he was summoned as a criminal, 
and where he was treated witli extreme injustice. 

He had some months before sent four knights to the king's 
court to answer in his name to a complaint from John the Mar- 
shal, one of the royal officers, about a suit that was pending in 
his own court, instead of attending himself, and this was now 
termed treason. He had, when he became archbishop, been 
formally released from all claims as to m^ney that had passed 
tliroui!;h his hands. Yet he was now called on to o-ive an account 
for the whole term of his chancellorship ; sums that the king 
had given him, and others that he had received for and laid out 
on the royal castles of which he was keeper, were demanded of 
him. 

For this non-appearance at the court, a fine of £500 was im- 
posed ; all his goods were afterward declared forfeited. He 
was threatened by some of the nobles with death, while others 
informed him that the king intended to imprison hifn for life. 

He left in the middle of the night and travelled, chiefly by 
night, until he reached the port of Sandwich, where he remained 
hid in a church until an opportunity offered of crossing the sea 



1164-70.] HENRY II. 97 

to Flanders, wliicli he did in an open boat, in the 3'ear 11G4. 
He retired into a monastery in Borgnndy, where for two years 
he led a life more austere than any of the monks. 

Henry, in the meantime, sent ambassadors both to the Pope 
and to the King of France, to demand either that the arch- 
bishop should be given up to him, or that he should be deprived 
of his see. Both demands were refused. 

The controversy continued for more than six years. At first 
Becket remained quietly in the Cistercian monastery, but after a 
time he obtained permission from the Pope to excommunicate 
some of his chief opponents. Henry, who could not reach him 
personally, persecuted the Cistercian monks in his own dominions 
for the offence of their French brethren in affording him a 
refuge. Becket then went to the King of France, M'ho received 
him with great honor. Henry on this made war with France, 
when he was so successful that Louis soon agreed to peace, and 
seemed inclined to abandon the cause of the archbishop. But 
Henry having treated with great barbarity some of his revolted 
subjects of Poitou, whose pardon he had promised in the 
treaty of peace, the French king gave his support to Becket 
more warmly than before, and prepared to take up arms, in his 
cause. 

The Pope now tried to reconcile the king to the archbishop, 
and after long negotiations this was effected. The two parties 
met near Tours. The archbishop's possessions were promised 
to be restored to him, and at last, after an absence of six years, 
he came back to Canterbury, He was received by the people 
and his clergy with transports of joy ; but he had only returned 
to meet his death. 

Just before his reconciliation with the king, a new cause of 
quarrel had arisen. It had always been regarded as the privi- 
lege of the Archbishop of Canterbury to crown the king, as it 
is now, but Henry, under the idea of securing his succession to 
the throne, had chosen to have his eldest son crowned during 
Becket's exile, and by his command the Archbishop of York, 
the Bishops of London, Salisbury, Worcester, and other pre- 
lates performed the ceremony. Becket excommunicated them. 
and he laid a like penalty on two brothers, Banulf and Robert 
7 



98 HENRY IL tnro. 

de Broc, Avlio had had charge of the estates of his see during 
his absence. The Brocs were prompt to revenge themselves, 
Thej stopped his provisions, beat his servants, maimed iiis 
cattle, killed his deer, and even threatened his life, but he re- 
mained iunnovable, and would not take anv measures of de- 
fence. 

The bishops in the meantime passed over to Kormandj to the 
king, and entreated his protection. 

Ilenrv fell into a violent rage, and demanded what was to be 
done. The Archbishop of York, M'ho had all through his life 
been a rival of Becket, replied : '' As long as Thomas lives, my 
lord king, you will have no peace in your kingdom." The king- 
then exclaimed " How long am I to be insulted by this upstart 
priest, who owes all to me ; a fellow who came to court on a 
lame horse \vithout a saddle, now holds the throne, and the 
knights who eat my bread look on ! " 

It was soon decided that the justiciary of Xormandy and two 
other nobles should be sent to England to seize the archbishop. 
But four of Henry's knights had secretly left the court while 
the debate was going on, without anv direct authority from the 
king, but thinking themselves well acrpiainted with his real 
wishes. 

They met at Saltwood Castle, in Kent, where Eanulf de 
Broc resided, and held a consultation with him, the result of 
which was that on the next morning, December 20, 1170, the 
whole party set forth for Canterbury. The intention was not' 
kill the archbishop, but to make him a prisoner. 

After an angry interview with him, they fiercely required of 
him to recall his sentences. He refused, and they then at- 
tempted to carry him away. Becket applied violent language, 
shook himself free from one, and tlirew another on the floor. 
They then attacked him with their swords, and laid him 
dead. 

The murderers then plundered the palace of plate and money, 
seized the best horses in the stable, and fled. The monks 
watched the body all night, and on the next day, as the Ih-ocs 
threatened to drag it about the city and hang it upon a gibbet, 
they hastily buried it jn the crypt. There it remained for fifty 



1170.] HENRY 11. 99 

years, until the grandson of Henry removed it to a splendid 
shrine behind the high altar of the cathedral. 

The news of the murder caused great alarm, if not grief, to 
Ileniy. He knew he would be ^mi^'ersallJ blamed for having 
caused it, and feared the Pope would exconnnunicate him, and 
absolve his subjects from their allegiance. He shut himself up 
from the light of day, and refused any nourishment for three 
days. 

Henry's first act afterward was to send ambassadors to the 
Pope to declare his innocence, and commissioners were appointed 
to inquire into the facts of the case. Two years afterward 
Henry made submission to the Pope, taking upon himself sev- 
eral duties, wdiich he bound himself to accomplish. 

In 1171 he undertook the conquest of Ireland, the expedition 
being approved by the Pope, and after an easy and peaceable 
submission of tliat people, returned to England in 1172, and re- 
ceived the grant of that country from Pope Adrian. 

Henry, now freed from the dangerous controversy with the 
ecclesiastics and with the See of Pome, seemed to have reached 
the pinnacle of human grandeur, and was happy in his family 
and government, A numerous progeny of sons and daughters 
gave lustre and authority to his crown, and prevented the dan- 
gers of a disputed succession, and his precautions in establishing 
the several bi-anches of his family seemed calcidated to prevent 
jealousy among the l:)rotliers. He appointed Henry, his eldest 
son, to be his successor in the kingdom of England, the duchy 
of Norm andy, and counties of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, ter- 
ritories which lay contiguous to each other, and by that means 
lent to each other mutual assistance. 

Pichard, liis second son, was invested with the ducliy of 
Guienne and county of Poitou. 

Geoffrey, his third son, inherited by i-ight of his wife, the 
duchy of Brittany, and the new conquest of Ireland was destined 
for the appanage of his fourth son, John. 

According to a promise made the Pope and the King of 
France, Henry permitted his eldest son, Prince Henry, and his 
wife Margaret, to be crowned in 1170, and afterward to pay a 
visit to his father-in-law at Paris, avIio took the opportunity of 



J 00 HEXRY n. [1171. 

instillino; ambitious sentiments into the mind of the voune: 
prince. It had been the constant practice of France, ever since 
the accession of the Capetian line, to crown the son during the 
lifetime of the father, without conferring on him any present 
participation in royalty. Louis persuaded his son-in-law that 
by this ceremony, which at that time was deemed so important, 
he had acquired a title to the soyereignty, and that the king, his 
father, could not, without injustice, exclude him from immediate 
possession of the ^yhole, or at least a portion, of his dominions. 

In consequence of these extrayagant ideas, young Henry, on 
his return, desired the kino- to resi^'n to him either the crown 
of England or the duchy of Xormandy, and showed great dis- 
content on his refusal. He spoke in tlie most undutiful terms 
of his father, and soon after made his escape to Paris, where he 
was supported and protected by Louis. 

While Henry was alarmed by this incident, he received in- 
telligence of new misfortunes, which affected him in a sensible 
manner. Queen Eleanor, who had disgusted her first husband 
by her gallantries, was no less offensive to her second by her 
jealousy, and now carried to extreme every circumstance of 
female weakness, and by her discontents persuaded her two 
younger sons, IJichai'd and Geoffrey, that they also were entitled 
to the present possession of the territories assigned to them, and 
advised them also to lly to the court of France, and she was in 
the act of going there, disguised in man's apparel, when she 
was seized by her husband's order, and placed in confineinent. 

Thus Europe saw with astonishment the best and most in- 
dulgent of parents at war with his whole family : tliree boys, 
scarcely arrived at maturity, requiring a great monarch, in the 
full yigor of his maturity and height of his reputation, to de- 
throne himself in their fayor, and several princes not ashamed 
to support them in their absurd demand. Henry, reduced to 
this disagreeable situation, had recourse to the See of Rome. 
Though sensible of the danger, he applied to the Pope, as his 
supreme lord, to excommunicate his enemies, and by this cen- 
sm-e reduce his undutiful childi-en to obedience. 

Alexander the Pope, well pleased to exert his power, issued 
the " bull " required of him, but Henry soon found that these 



11T2-3.] • HENRY II. ^Ql 

spiritual weapons had not the same power as when employed in 
spiritual warfare, and that the clergy wei-e negligent in sup- 
porting a sentence in which they were not concerned. The king, 
after taking this humiliating course, was obliged to have recourse 
to arms. 

To avert the severance of his vast dominions, Henry had 
need of all his great cpialities, Louis of France bound himself, 
with the usual oaths, to aid the young Ilenry in his attempt to 
possess England, and young Ilenry vowed never to make peace 
with his father unless Louis should give consent. There were 
two other princes who became parties to this league — William, 
King of Scotland, and Philip, Earl of Flanders. In England 
there were discontented barons, whose oppressions were checked 
by a sovereign who had strenuously assei'ted the veiy disagree- 
able principle of legal justice. 

"War was now declared between France and England. Ilenry 
collected an army of twenty thousand men, soldiers of fortune, 
adventurers who were ready to support any cause that afforded 
pay and plunder. 

The allied enemies of the king entered Is^ormandy, but were 
repulsed. The Scots made incursions upon the north of Eng- 
land, but they were driven back by Richard de Lacy, the justi- 
ciary, and Humphrey de Bohun, the Lord High Constable, 
who ravaged Lothian and burned Berwick. Meanwhile the 
Earl of Leicester, who had taken part against the king, had 
brought over a large body of Flemings, and that foi'ce was 
joined by the Earl of ]S"orfolk, near St. Edmundsbury, where 
they were met by the king's army, which had returned ti-iumph- 
antly from Scotland. The banner of St. Ednnmd was carried 
in front of the royal, army, and at a marshy place called Forne- 
ham, on the bank of the river, the rebel forces were entirely de- 
feated, and the Earl of Leicester and his countess were taken 
prisoners. 

The two kings met, with their armies, between Trie and 
Crisors, and Ilenry had the mortitication of seeing his three sons 
in the retinue of his mortal enemy. The two armies cajne to 
an action near Dol, and Ilenry Avas victorious, and the rebels in 
Britanny M'ere entirely defeated. 



102 HENRY n. [UT4-S3. 

Tlie insiiiTCctionarv standard was raised in the northern, niid- 
h\nd, and eastern counties of England. A lieet was ready at 
G ravel ines to bring over young Henry, but thei'e Avas one who, 
whilst all around him seemed crumbling into ruins, stood as un- 
shaken as in the days of his most joyous security. On July 
7, 1171, the king took ship and crossed the channel in a 
hea\y storm. He was more than usually soleum during the 
ditRcult voyage. He had batfled his enemies in Fi-ance and had 
put his frontiers there in a state of defence, and hearing of the 
disturbance in England, determined by his presence to overawe 
the malcontents. 

He landed at Southampton, and, throwing the iniiuence of 
superstition over the minds of the people, hastened to Canter- 
bury to make atonement and do penance to the ashes of Becket 
buried there, and tender his submission to his dead enemy, and 
as he saw the cathedral towers looming in the distance, he 
alighted and walked in penitential garb, barefoot, to the city, to 
kneel at the tomb of a Becket in deep humiliation, and remained 
fasting and in prayer during the whole day. and submitted to 
be scourged by the monks. The following day he received ab- 
solution and departed for London, whei'e he first heard of the 
defeat of the Scots. 

On August 10. 1175, "William, King of Scotland, was ran- 
somed at the expense of doing honuige to Henry fi^r his king- 
dom, and the delivery of .some of his principal fortresses to 
England. 

Henry having, contrary to expectation, extricated himself with 
honor from a situation in which his throne Avas endangered, 
employed himself for several years in the administration of 
justice, in the execution of the laws, and guarding against con- 
vulsions such as had just passed over the kingdom. 

Prince Henry was, after a time, reconciled to his father, and 
they lived in apparent cordiality together. In the year 11 S3 the 
king conunanded his son Richard to do himiage to his elder 
brother for Aquitaine. He refused, and young Henry entered 
Richard's territory with an army. The father interposed and 
apparently reconciled the brothers ; but new causes of quarrel 
arose, and then Henry and Geoffrey rebelled against the king. 



1183-89.] HENRY II. IQ^ 

Being about to give battle to his father, young Henry fell ill 
and then became penitent. 

The king, always forgiving, sent him a ring as a token of his 
love, and the unhappy young man died, pressing the token to 
his lips, at Martel Castle, near Turenne, on June 11, 1183, from 
the effects of fever, leaving no issue, in the twenty-eighth year 
of his age. 

By his death Richard became heir to the throne, and the king 
mtended that John, his youngest and favorite son, should in- 
herit Guienne, but Richard refused his consent and fled into 
the duchy. 

Geoffrey now demanded that Anjou should be added to liis 
dominions, and on meeting with a refusal fled to the court of 
France and levied an army against his fathei-, but the king was 
soon freed from this danger by the death of that young prince, 
who was killed in a tournament in Paris in the autumn of 11S6. 

In the year 11S9, at the instigation of Philip, King of Fi-ance, 
Richard rebelled against his father, and demanded that he should 
be crowned king of England, that he should ])e invested with 
all his transmarine dominions, and should immediately espouse 
Alice, sister of King Philip, to whom he had been previously 
affianced, and who had already arrived in England. 

Henry, having before experienced such fatal effects both 
from the crowding of his eldest son and from that prince's alli- 
ance with the royal family of France, rejected these terms, and 
Richard, in consequence of his secret agreement Avith Philip, 
revolted from him, did homage to the King of France for all 
his dominions which Henry held of that crown, and received 
investitures as if he had already become the lawful possessor. 

Henry was now obliged to defend his possessions by amis, 
and engage in a war with France. 

■ The quarrel arose in consequence of a broken engagement. 
Henry had, twenty years before, contracted a marriage for his 
son Richard with the Princess Alice, sister of the King of 
France, then a mere child, and had got possession of a large 
district as. her dower. The princess conducted herself in such 
a manner that the king, when she grew up, refused to allow 
Richard to take her for his wife ; but Henry, in spite of this, 



104 RICHARD I. (CGEUR DE LION). [1189. 

kept possession of her lands. Her brother claimed them from 
him. Richard joined in the demand, and, as he was a vassal 
of the King of France, was called npon to take np arms in his 
cause. Ileniy was at length attacked bj the King of France 
and his own son, was driven from Touraine by them, and was 
soon after obliged to sue for peace, which he only obtained by 
the payment of a large sum of money, and giving up the prin- 
cess's lands. 

Thus foiled in his projects, Henry returned to the Castle of 
Chinon, where a new grief awaited him. He had agreed to 
pardon all who had conspired against him, and he was struck 
to the heart on finding the name of his youngest son, John, 
amongst them. It threw him into a lingering fever, of which 
he died, on July 6, 1189, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, 
and thirty-fifth of liis reign. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Malcolm lY. and Wil- 
liam the Lion ; France : Louis VH. and Philip II. ; Emperor 
of the West : Frederick I. 

Richard I. (Coeur de Lion)— A. D. 1189-1199. 

Bom cat Oxford, September, 1157. 

Crowned September 3, 1189, and again April 17, 1194. 

Married, May 12, 1191, Berengaria, daughter of Sanchez the Wise, King of 

Navarre. No issue. 
Died April 6, 1199, being slain by an arrow from the Castle of Chaluz, in 

Limosin, which he had invested. 
Buried at Fontevraud. 
Succeeded by his brother John. 

Richard, surnamed Cffiur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, 
second king of England of the Plantagenet line, was third son 
of Henry II. and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, and great- 
grandson, in the female line, of Henry I. He was born at Ox- 
ford, September 13, 1157. He was noted in his youtli for 
rash valor and a turbulent disposition, qualities which he shared 
Avitli his brothers Henry and Geoffrey. He soon became cele- 
brated for his proficiency in arms, and his fondness f-or poetry 
and music. 

In 1169 he received the duchy of Aquitaine, by the treaty of 



1189.] RICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). 105 

Montrenil, under the supremacy of Louis YII., Kiug of Frauce, 
to wliose youngest daughter, Alice, he was betrothed. Before 
he liad completed his sixteenth year he engaged with his broth- 
ers, Henry and Geoffrey, in a revolt against his father and 
king, and fled to France, where he was knighted by Louis, but 
soon after surrendei-ed to his father and was forgiven. He was 
then known as the Count of Poitou, and claimed the dukedom 
of Aquitaine, M'hich was ceded to him by his father. 

By liis father's orders he entered upon a successful war 
against the Count of Toulouse, and after he liad taken the 
cross in the third crusade, continued the war, in spite of his 
vow, to a successful issue. 

Believing that the king was going to exclude him from the 
succession, in favor of liis j'ounger brother, John, Bichard 
joined King Philip in a contest against his father, and did 
homage to France for his English territories in that country. 
In the war that followed Philip and Bichard were victorious, 
which ended in King Plenry's death. Bichard was present at 
liis father's burial, and M'as greatly affected, and to make 
amends for his undiitiful conduct toward him, lie got absolution 
for his disobedience, and gave his friendship to all the existing 
ministers of the late king, Avho had vigorously opposed all his 
enterprises and rebellions, and those who had seconded his re- 
bellions were disgraced. 

His first act on ascending the throne, July G, 1189, was to 
send orders to England for the release of his mother, the 
queen-dowager, from her long confinement, and he entrusted 
her with the government of the kingdom until his arrival 
there. 

His bounty to his brother John was profuse and imprudent, 
bestowing upon him the province of Montaigne, in Normandy, 
six earldoms in England, and a pension of four thousand marks 
a year. On Jidy 20th Bichard took possession of the duchy of 
Normandy,, where he remained a short time and then left for 
England, and on September 3, 1189, was crowned at Westmin- 
ster with great splendor. He swore to observe peace, honor, and 
reverence toward the holy church, and to exercise true justice 
and equity to the people committed to his charge. 



106 RICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). [1180-90. 

Richard returned to Normandy on December lltli, leaving 
William de Longchamp guardian of the realm. 

The king, impelled more by the love of military glory than 
by superstition, acted from the beginning of his reign as if the 
sole purpose of his government had been the relief of the Holy 
Land, and the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens ; his 
zeal being communicated to his subjects, broke out in London 
shortly after his coronation, and all the military and turl)ulent 
spirits Hocked about his person, and were impatient to distin- 
guish themselves against the infidels in Asia, where he was in- 
vited by the King of France, who was now ready to embark. 

The French and English kings now exchanged promises of 
mutual friendship, and pledged their faith one to the other not 
to invade the other's dominions during the crusade, and ex- 
changed the oatlis of all their barons and bishops to the same 
effect, and subjected themselves to the penalty of interdicts and 
excommunications if they should ever violate the solemn en- 
gagement. 
-^ Large bodies of crusaders were gathering in England ; and, 
as they marched to the coast .for embarcation they exhibited 
their Christian spirit by inciting tlie people to plunder and 
murder the Jews. 

At York this persecuted race exhibited a sulilime heroism. 
A body of armed men entered the city, and commenced their 
M'ork of plunder and massacre by attacking the liouse of a Jew 
who had perished in the riot of London. All the Jews of York 
then claimed shelter in the castle ; they were admitted to the 
number of five hundred. The governor went away, and upon 
his return the Jews, alarmed for their safety, refused to admit 
him. The castle was attacked on all sides, and ransoms were 
refused. Then the desperate race, all except a few, put their 
wives and children to death and stabbed each other, that they 
might not fall into the hands of their cruel enemies. The few 
who shrank from this terrible self-sacri;5ce were murdered. 

Under such auspices the third crusade commenced, and to 
find the means the king raised money in every conceivable way. 
In his father's treasury he found one hundred thousand marks ; 
but this was a small sum for Ijis extravagant purposes, lie ptit 



1190.] RICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). 107 

up the crown demesnes for sale ; he sohi the pnblic offices ; he 
sold earldoms ; he sold the claim which Henry had asserted to 
the light of homage for the crown of Scotland. lie had no 
shame in thus degrading the king for the ambition of the cru- 
sader. "I would sell London if I could find a purchaser," he 
exclaimed. Kichard's chamber w'as a market-place, in which 
all that the king could- bestow, or could be derived from the 
crown, was disposed of to the highest bidder. 

In the midsummer of 1190 the two kings set out on their 
expedition, llicliard proceeded from Tours, Philip from Paris. 
They met at Vezelay, and thence marched to Lyons, and the 
tents of the associated armies were pitched on the banks of the 
Rhone. The leaders and their followers here separated, and 
Pichard took the road to Marseilles ; his fleet had not appeared. 

After a time Richard put to sea, and, from stress of weathei-, 
had to take shelter in Messina, where he found the King of 
France and his army had already arrived. Llere they were de- 
tained all the winter, which led to much trouble. Richard 
became involved in a quarrel with the King of Sicily, whose 
side the French king favored. 

While there Richard freed himself from his betrothal to the 
Princess Alice, Philip's sister, stating that he was able to pro- 
duce convincing proof of her infidelity, and even to her having 
borne a child to his father Henry, but chose to wrap up the dis- 
lionor in silence, to which Philip was obliged to consent. 

The King of IS^aples and Sicily was then AVilliam II., avIio 
had married Joan, Richard's sister. Her mother, Queen Elea- 
nor, was now expected at Messina, and with her the Princess 
Berengaria, daughter of Sanchez, King of Navarre, with whom 
Richard was already enamored, and only waited her arrival to 
continue his expedition. When they joined him he separated 
his fleet into two squadrons, and set forward on his expedition. 
Queen Eleanor remaining, but Joan, his sister, and Berengaria 
accompanied him on his journey. 

The Eno;lish fleet on leavino; Messina met with a furious 
tempest, and the ship on which the two princesses embarked 
was driven on the coast of Cyprus, with several others of the 
squadron, and their crews inhospitably treated and cast into pri- 



lOS RICHARD I. (CCKUR DE LION) [1191. 

son hy Comnenus, ruler of the island, who endeavored to get 
possession of the person of Berengaria, But Richard, who ar- 
rived soon after, took ample vengeance on him for the injury. 
lie disembarked his troops, defeated the tj'i-ant, who opposed 
his landing, entered his capital by storm, and obliged Comnenus 
to surrender, and cast him into prison. On May 12, 1191, 
Ilichard married Berengaria at Lymasol. 

He set sail from Cyprus on June 5, 1191. A year had nearly 
passed since he and Philip had met on the plahis of 'Vezelay. 
For the past two years Acre had been in vain besieged by the 
Christian host. 

On his voyage he fell in with an enoi-mous galley, carrying 
ammunition and stores for the relief of Acre. As his smaller 
vessels attacked the great Saracen ship, the Greek fire, that 
terrible lirpiid flame which was unknown to Richard's men, was 
poured down upon them from the high deck, and they would 
have been beaten off, but for Richard's threat — " I will crucify 
all my soldiers if she is not taken." The vessel, with several 
hundred men, was at length sunk, and all the crew lost. 

On his arrival he found Philip, who had alreadj^ commenced 
the siege of Acre, and the rivalry Avliich defeated the object of 
the crusade soon broke out. 

The two kings immediately decided on their plan of opera- 
tions : when the French monarch attacked the city, the English 
guarded the trenches ; the next day the order was reversed. 
The emulation between these rival kings and rival nations pro- 
duced extraordinary acts of valor. Richard, in particular, ani- 
mated M'ith a more perceptible courage than Philip, and more 
agreeable to the romantic of that age, drew to himself general 
admiration, and acquired a great and splendid reputation ; but 
the harmony was of short duration, and occasions of discord 
soon arose between these jealous and haughty princes. . 

A faction was now formed as to which of two families were 
the rightful titular claimants to the kingdom of Jerusalem. 

The family of Baldwin, which had first been placed on the 
throne of Jerusalem, ended in a female. Fulk, Count of An- 
jou, grandfather to Henry II. of England, married the heiress 
of that kingdom, and transmitted his title to the younger 



1193.] RICHARD I. (CCRUR DE LION). 209 

brandies of his family, and Guy de Lnsignan represented that 
faction, as the husband of Sybilla, the eldest daughter. Conrad, 
Marquis of Montferrat, the husband of Isabella, a younger sis- 
ter, represented the other faction. Philip favored the latter, 
while Richard supported De Lusignan. 

Philip wanted to assault Acre immediately, to which Pichard 
objected, as all his troops had not arrived, and he was himself 
suffering from the plague then raging in the Christian camp. 

During his illness Pichard is said to have received many 
courtesies from the enemy, the Sultan Saladin. Pie slowly re- 
covered, and the siege was prosecuted with vigor. Every en- 
deavor on the part of Saladin to relieve the place failed. 

On July 12, 1191, after long negotiations, it was agreed 
that Acre should be surrendered, stipulating for their lives, 
promising to return all Christian prisoners and to deliver up 
the wood of the true cross ; and that a certain portion of the 
garrison should be left as hostages for the due performance 
of the capitulation. The Turks were also to pay a large sum of 
money. 

Durino; the sie2:e the loss of life was enormous, three hundred 
thousand Christians having perished from the time of the com- 
mencement to the surrender of the city. 

Philip of France, after the captm-e of Acre, resolved to return 
home, being disgusted with the ascendancy assumed and acquired 
by Pichard, and having views of advantages he might reap by 
his presence in Europe, and he thought the subtlety of the fox 
might be as effectual as the rage of the lion. He therefore de- 
clared his intenti(»n of immediately returning to France. lie 
left with Richard ten thousand of his troops, and renewed his 
oath never to commence hostilities against him. But he had 
no sooner reached Rome, than he applied to the Pope to be ab- 
solved from his vow, which M"as denied him. 

On August 20th, Richard caused his Saracen prisoners, to the 
number of five thousand, to be butchered, because the terms of 
the surrender of Acre had not been fulfilled. The Saracens re- 
taliated upon the Christians by a like cruelty. The next day 
he commenced his march toward Jerusalem. He defeated the 
Saracens at Arsuf on September Tth, and took Jaffa, and after 



110 RICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). [1193. 

great opposition from liis associate.?, proceeded with a portion of 
liis force to attempt tlie siege of Asealon, in order to prepare 
tlie way to Jerusalem, and where he was joined by most of the 
Frencli force. 

Saladin purposed to intercept their passage, and placed him- 
self on the road with an army of three hundred tliousand men. 
On this occasion was fought one of the greatest battles of the 
age. The right and left lines, commanded b}' the Dukes de 
Avasues and Burgundy, were broken and defeated early in the 
day, when Eichard, commanding the main body, restored the 
battle, attacked the enemy with intrepidity and presence of 
mind, performed the part of both a consummate general and 
gallant soldier, and not only gave his two wiugs leisure to re- 
cover froui their confusion, but obtained a complete victory 
over the enemy, of whom forty tliousand are said to have 
perished on the field. 

Asealon soon after fell into the hands of the Christians. 
Other sieges were carried on with success, and Richard was 
even able to advance in sight of Jerusalem, the object of all his 
thoughts, when he had the mortification to find that he must 
abandon all hopes of immeiliate success, and put a stop to his 
career of victory. 

The Crusaders, now trusting to the immediate assistance of 
heaven, set nothing before their eyes but fame and victory in 
this world, and a crown of glory in the next, and their long 
absence from home, fatigue, disease, want, and the variety of 
incidents that attend war, had gradually al)ated their fuiy, wliich 
nothiug was now able to withstand, and every one except the 
King of England expressed a desire of quickly returning home. 

The news from England, too, required that he also should re- 
turn there ; still he adhered to the purpose of the crusade, and 
made arrangements to proceed to Jerusalem, but Saladin had so 
fortified that city that it was considered impregnable. 

Eichard returned to Acre in July, 1192, and was about to re- 
turn to England when he heard that Jaffa was in danger of 
falling into the hands of the Saracens. Hastening to its relief, 
at the head of a small force, he defeated Saladin and afterward 
defended the place against another attack by the Saracens. 



1192-93.] RICHARD I. (C(EUR DE LION). HI 

A truce soon followed, and Ricliard Avas then informed that 
his brother John was playing him false — that, as soon as he was 
on his way to Palestine, John perambulated the kingdom, court- 
ing popularity, and had received homage from the people. 

Richard had entrusted him with no authority, but had placed 
the government in the hands of William de Longchamps, the 
chancellor, lie therefore left Acre in October for England, 
and was shipwrecked near Aquileia, in the iVdriatic. He wore 
the dress of a pilgrim, but the lavishness of the king was so 
little. in keeping with his assumed character that his real rank 
was soon suspected. The impatient adventurer, with a single 
attendant, rode day and night till he arrived in the neighbor- 
hood of Vienna. He rested at a small village wdiilst his com- 
panion went out to buy food. The person of this attendant was 
known to one who had been with the Duke of Austria in Pales- 
tine, and this knowledge led to the captivity of Pichard. 

Leopold, Duke of Austria, whose banner he had cast down at 
Acre, was brother-in-law to Comnenus of Cyprus. His mean soul 
had the gratification of a cowardly revenge, and he sent Pichard 
a prisoner to the Castle of Tyernsteign. The Emperor, Henry 
VI., also considered Pichard his enemy, and sent messengers 
to the Duke and required the i-oyal captive to be delivered up 
to him, and promised a large sum of money for the service. 

Thus the king of England, who had tilled the whole world 
with his renown, found himself, during the most critical state o£ 
his affairs, confined in a dungeon and loaded with irons in the 
heart of Germany, and entirely at the mercy of his enemies, 
and where he suffered every kind of insult and indignity. 

The English Council were astonished at receiving this fatal 
intelligence, which had been made known l^y a letter from the 
emperor to the King of Erance. In England the people were 
faithful to their captive king, and John was now in open hos- 
tility to his brother. 

The C[ueen-dowager wrote frequent letters to the Pope ex- 
claiming against the insult to her son, and representing the im- 
piety of detaining in prison the most illustrious prince that yet 
carried the banner of the cross. 

The King of France now^ prepared to take every advantage of 



1]^2 RICHARD I. (CCKUR DE LION). [1193. 

Ricliarcrs imprisonment. He immediately employed every 
means of force and intrigue against the person and dominions 
of his rival. He made the emperor the largest offers if he 
would deliver the royal prisoner into his hands, or at least de- 
tain him in perpetual captivity. 

But the most successful negotiation was with Prince John, 
who, forgetting every tie of brother, sovereign, and benefactor, 
thought of nothing but his own advantage. That traitor, on 
the first invitation from the court of France, left England im- 
mediately and had a confei'ence with Philip, and then and there 
made a treaty, the object of which was the perpetual ruin of 
his unfortunate brother. 

He stipulated to deliver into Philip's hands a large part of 
Normandy, and received in return the investiture of all Rich- 
ard's transmarine dominions, and, it is said," did homage to 
Philip for the crown of England. 

In 1103, in consequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor- 
mandy, and by the treachery of John's emissaries made himself 
master of many fortresses without opposition. Happily the 
Earl of Leicester arrived at this critical moment. 

That gallant nobleman, who had acquired great honor during 
the crusade, and who had been more fortunate than his master 
the king in getting a safe passage home, took npon himself the 
command at Rouen, and by his exertions infused courage into 
the dismayed Xormans. 

Philip was thus repulsed in every attack, and he consented to 
a truce with the English regency by the payment of twenty 
thousand marks, and had four castles delivered up to him as 
security for the payment. Immediately after this treaty Prince 
John sailed for England with a band of mercenaries, and pi'o- 
claimed that the king had died in prison ; but the prelates and 
barous were firm, and the schemes of John were overthrown ; 
but he had succeeded in making himself master of the castles of 
"Windsor and Wallingford. Measures were taken to oppose and 
subdue him, and after some fruitless efforts lie was glad to con- 
clude a truce with the barons who opposed liim, and soon 
thought it prudent to return to France, where he openly avowed 
his alliance with Philip. 



1193.] BICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). Hg 

Meanwhile the higli spirit of Richard suffered in prison. 
The emperor treated him with great severity, to make him 
submit to the payment of a large ransom. He was even pro- 
duced before the Diet of the empire at Worms, and was ac- 
cused by Henry of the murder of Conrad Montferrat, and 
various crimes and misdemeanors. 

Ilichard, whose spirit was not broken by his misfortune, 
answered that although his dignity exempted him from answer- 
ing before any tribunal except that of heaven, yet, for the sake of 
his reputation, he would condescend to justify his conduct before 
that great assembly. After reciting all the charges, he apolo- 
gized to the Duke of Austria, saying that if he had at any time 
been wanting in civility to him he had already been sufficiently 
punished. After thus deigning to apologize for his conduct, he 
burst out in indignation at the cruel treatment he had met 
with ; that he, the champion of the cross, still wearing that 
lionorable badge, after expending the blood and treasure of 
his subjects in the common cause of Cliristianity, should be 
intercepted by Christian priuces on his return to his own coun- 
try, thrown into a dungeon, loaded with irons, and be obliged 
to plead his own cause, as if he were a subject and a male- 
factor, and, what he still more regretted, be thereby prevented 
from making preparations for a new crusade. 

The spirit and eloquence of Richard made such an impres- 
sion on the German princes that they loudly exclaimed against 
the conduct of the emperor, and the Pope, now threatening him 
with excommunication if he detained Richard longer, he found 
it would be impracticable to hold him or to execute the base 
purposes of the King of France or Prince John of England. 
He therefore concluded a treaty with Richard for his ransom, 
and agreed to restore him to liberty on the payment of one 
hundred and fifty thousand marks, of which one hundred 
thousand were to be paid before he received his freedom, 
and sixty hostages delivered for the remainder. 

The captivity of the Superior Lord was one of the cases pro- 
vided for by the feudal tenures, and all the vassals were, in 
that event, obliged to give aid for his ransom. Twenty marks 
were therefore levied on each knight's fee in England. This 



114 RICHARD I. (CCKUR DE LION). f!194. 

amount came in slowlj, and was not snfficieiit for the purpose, 
but tlie zeal of the people I'eadily supplied the remainder. 
The church melted down their plate, the Ijishops and nobles 
paid a fourth of their yearly rents, and the parochial clergy 
contri1)uted a tenth of their tithes. The requisite sum being 
thus collected, Queen Eleanor and Walter, Archbishop of 
Kouen, set out with it for (irermaiiy, on the 4tli of February, 
1194, paid the money to the emperor at Mentz, and delivered 
liim hostages for the remainder, thus freeing Richard from 
captivit3\ 

Even after the payment of the money and the departure of 
Richard, the emperor gave orders that he should be pursued 
and arrested. But the king, making all haste, had already em- 
barked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and was out of sight of 
land when the messenger reached Antwerp. 

The joy of the English was great on the return of their king, 
who had suffered so much and gained such glory. Richard 
landed at Sandwich on the 20th of March, 1194. On the 
twenty-eighth of the same month the Castle of Nottingham, 
which was held by men-at-arms in the interest of John, surren- 
dered to the king. The remainder of that month was em- 
ployed in fighting for the castles occupied by the creatures of 
his l)rother John. 

On the ITth of April he ordered himself to be crowned anew, 
Avhich ceremony w^as performed at Winchester, as if he in- 
tended to reinstate himself upon his throne, and to wipe out 
the ignominy of his captivity. 

He called for a judgment against John, who Avas cited to 
appear within forty days to answer or forfeit all right to the 
kingdom, on the charge that he had broken his fealty to the 
king, taken possession of his castles, wasted his lands, and made 
a treaty with liis enemy the King of France. John not appear- 
ing, he was condemned, and he then dispossessed certain barons 
of their baronies and put them np for sale to the highest bid- 
ders. 

On the 2d of May, Ricliard, being only two months in 
Eno'land, accompanied by his mother, Queen Eleanor, left Ports- 
mouth for Normandy. He took an army with him, being im- 



llO^-m] RICHARD I. (COKUR DE LIOX). 115 

patient to make war upon Pliilip and to revenge himself for the 
many injuries he had received from that monarch. 

For the next two years, Richard remained in France, where 
lie carried on almost constant war against Philip, in wdiicli he 
M'on brilliant successes, but thej did not result in any permanent 
good. During this war John deserted from Philip, threw him- 
self at Richard's feet, and craved pardon for his offences, and 
by the intercession of Queen Eleanor was again received into 
favor. 

In 1196 a truce was declared between Richard and Philip, 
which was soon broken, bat M^as renewed for five years. In 1 199 
war again broke out, but the mediation of the C^irdinal of kSt. 
Mary, the Pope's legate, accommodated the difference. 

To enable the king to carry on the war for five years, the 
exactions and privations of his English subjects w^ere very great. 
The modes by which his ministers raised the money appear to 
combine the attriljutes of the tyrant and the swindler. Tlie 
mean qualities of his brother John excites no surprise. In 
the characters of these two sons of Henry II. there were strik- 
ing points of resemblance as well as of difference. The last 
scene of Richard's life is an epitome of his qualities. He per- 
ished, not fighting for a kingdom, but for a paltry treasure 
which one of his barons had discovered on his estate ; the royal 
right to treasure so found was claimed by the king. 

The Viscount of Limoges refused to surrender the gold and 
silver, though he offered a large portion to Richard, who ac- 
cordingly laid siege to the viscount's castle of Chaluz, and would 
allow no conditional surrender. They asked for safety of life 
and limb, but the king swore that since he had taken the pains 
to come there and besiege the place in person, he would take it 
by force and hang every one of them. Accordingly the knights 
and men-at-arms returned to the castle in sorrow and confusion, 
and prepared to make defence. Reconnoitering the fortress on 
March 28, 1199, Richard was wounded in the arm by an arrow 
aimed by Bertrand de Gurdun. Tlie king immediately gave 
orders for the assault, took the place, and hanged every one of 
the defenders, except the youth who had wounded him. 

In those days of rude surgery the barbed iron head of the 



116 RICHARD I. (CCEUR DE LION). [1199. 

arrow could not be extracted from the flesh without tlie limb 
being dreadfully mangled. For twelve days Richard suffered 
the agonies of his wound, and saw^ at last that death was ap- 
proaching. • lie bequeathed the kingdom of England and all his 
other dominions to John. He ordered a fourth of his treasures 
to be distributed among his servants and the poor. He then 
ordered Bertrand de Gurdun, who had wounded him to come 
into his presence, and said to him, " What harm have I done to 
you that you have killed me ? " On which he made answer : 
" You slew my father and tw^o brothers with your own hand, 
and you intended now to kill me ; therefore take any revenge 
on me you may think fit, I will readily endure the greatest tor- 
ments you can devise, so long as you have met with your end, 
after having inflicted evils so many and so great upon the 
world." The king ordered him to be released, and said: "I 
forgive you my death.'' 

This part of the dying king's wish was disregarded. Marcha- 
des, an hireling soldier, after Richard's death, flayed young De 
Gurdun alive and then hanged him. 

Gangrene now set in, and, on April 6, 1100, Richard died, in 
the forty-second year of his age, and the tenth of his reign. 

He left no legitimate children, and his .queen, Berengaria, 
who survived him many years, never visited England. 

The most shining part of Richard's character was his military 
career. He was a representative prince of the age of chivalry. 
Having, beyond the accident of birth and inheritance, little con- 
nection with England, he was ignorant of the language, and 
only spent six months in the country during his reign, the most 
of his time being passed in the provinces of southern France. 
He was distinguished by all his good as well as his bad qualities. 
He was open, frank, generous, sincere, and brave ; he was revenge- 
ful, domineering, ambitious, haughty, and cruel. He was better 
calculated to dazzle men by the splendor of his enterprises than 
to promote tlieir happiness or his own grandeur by a sound and 
well-regulated policy. 

He was succeeded by his brother John. 

CoN'TEMPORARY RuLERs. — ^Scotlaud : William ; France : Philip 
H. ; Emperors of the AVest : Frederick I., Henry YI. 



1199.] JOHN LACKLAND. n^ 



John (Lackland) — A.D. 1199-1216. 

Born at Oxford, December 24, 1166. 

Crowned May 27, ll'J9. 

Married, first, Isabel, daughter and heiress of William, Earl of Gloucester, 
from whom he was divorced. Second, Isabella, daughter and heiress of 
Aymer Taillefer, Count of Angouleme, by whom she had issue : . 

Henry, his successor, born October 1, 1207. 

Richard, born January 6, 1209 ; created Earl of Cornwall, and elected, in 
1256, King of the Romans ; died 1272. 

Joan, married, 1221, Alexander II., King of Scotland. 

Eleanor, married William, Earl of Pembroke. 

Isabella, married, 12oo, to Frederick II., Emperor of the West. 

Died at Newark, October 19, 1216. Buried at Worcester Cathedral. 

John — siirnamed " Lackland " —from being a portionless son, 
was tlie 3^onngest son of King Ilenrj 11. and his queen, Eleanor 
of Aqnitaine. 

In liis eleventh year he M'as declared Lord of Ireland, and 
wlien he reached the age of eighteen lie was sent there to take 
on himself the duties of the othce ; but he and his gay young 
companions behaved so offensiv^ely to the native chiefs, and his 
conduct was so imprudent that he became an object of universal 
abhorrence, and his father was compelled to recall him to Eng- 
land at the close of the vear. His maniao-e with Alice, dauo:h- 
ter of the Count of Savoj-, was negotiated for, but her early 
death prevented it. 

Lie was his father's favorite son, but he joined in frequent 
rebellions against him, and he is accused of being the cause of 
Llenry's death, when he was told that John's name stood first 
on the list of those barons who joined^Philip of France against 
him. Richard, his elder brother, and his father's successor to 
the crown, bestowed large possessions on him, but that did not 
prevent John from rebelling against him. Richard, when he 
entered on the holy war, declared his nephew, Arthur, Duke 
of Brittany, his successor, and, by a formal deed, set aside the 
title of his brother John in Arthur's favor, as he was the son of 
Geoffrey, John's elder brother. But John soon gained the 
ascendent in the English ministry by expelling Longcharap, the 
chancellor, and he brought over all the barons to swear that 



lis JOHN LACKLAND. [1190-1200. 

they would maintain his right to tlie succession, and Richard, 
on his return, took no steps toward restoring or secui'ing the 
succession he had first established ; he was even careful by his 
last will to declare his l>rother John heir to all his dominions. 
Arthur was then only twelve years of age, and his uncle, the 
king, may have thought him too young to assert his claim 
against John and his faction. 

The authority of a testament was great in that age, and John 
had reason to hope that this title would ensure him the succes- 
sion. 

But the King of France, who desired only to embarrass John 
and dismember his dominions, embraced the cause of the young- 
Duke of Brittany, took him under his protection, and sent him 
to Paris to be educated. 

In this emergency John hastened to estal)lish his autliority, 
and after sending his mother, Queen Eleanor, to Poitou 
and Guienne, where her right was incontestable and readily 
acknowledged, he hurried to Rouen, and having secured the 
duchy of Kormandy, passed over to England without loss of 
time. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl of Pembroke, and 
Eitz-Peter, the justiciary, were already engaged on his side, and 
the submission or accpiiescence of all the other barons put him, 
without opposition, in possession of the throne. 

lie was ci-owned at Westminster, May 27, 1199, and shortly 
after returned to France in ' order to conduct a war against 
Pliilip, and to recover his revolted provinces from his nephew 
Arthur. An expensive war ensued, but the general of Prince 
Arthur's forces, finding that Philip was acting for his own in- 
tei'ests, effected a reconciliation between John and Ai'thur. 

The uncle then tried to make away with his nephew, who 
made his escape and fled with his mother to Philip's pi'otection. 

In the year 1200 a peace was made betM-een France and Eng- 
land, and John was acknowledged as Richard's heir, and Arthur 
was ol)liged to do homage for Brittany, for which acknowledg- 
ment John paid the King of France a large sum. 

John, feeling himself secure on the side of France, indulged 
his passion for Isabella, the daughter and heiress of Aymei", 



1200-3.] JOHN LACKLAND. HQ 

Count of Angoulerae, his queen, Avisa, daugliter of the Duke 
of Gloucester, being still alive. Isabella was already married 
to the Count De La March, but on account of her tender years 
the marriage had not been consummated, although she was al- 
ready consigned to the care of that nobleman. 

IJe persuaded the Count of Angoaleme to carry off his daugh- 
ter from her husband ; and having, on some pretence or other, 
procured a divorce from his own wife, married Isabella, x\.u- 
gust 24, 1200. 

In the 3'ear 1201 the Counts De La March and d'Eu excited 
commotions in Poitou and ^Kormandy, and John was obliged to 
have recourse to arms, in order to suppress the insurrection; he 
summoned the barons of England to accompany him for that pur- 
pose, but he found he had little authority over them, and they 
refused to attend him on his expedition unless he would prom- 
ise to restore and preserve their privileges; but affairs were not 
fully ripe for the revolution projected, and by his menaces he 
broke tlieir concert, and many followed him. 

Civil war broke out in Poitou and Kormandy in the yeai; 
1202, and Prince Arthur besieged his grandmother. Queen 
Eleanor (who had always opposed his interests), at the castle of 
Mirabeau, protected by a weak garrison; but John, roused 
from his indolence, collected an arm}-, and hastened to lier 
assistance, and on August 1st defeated the Ijesiegers in a 
pitched battle, killing or capturing them all. Arthur, then in 
his sixteenth j'ear, was among the captives, together with the 
Count de la March ^Jid Geoffrey de Lusignan. John then re- 
turned in triumph to Normandy ; on his arri\'al there he had a 
meeting with his nephew Arthur, representing to liim the fi>]ly 
of his pretensions, and requiring him to immediately renovmce 
his French alliance, M'hich had encouraged him to live in a 
state of enmity with the rest of his family ; but the brave 
though imprudent youth maintained the justice of his cause, 
and asserted his claim not only to the French p]-ovinces, but .to 
the crown of England, and, in his turn, required John to re- 
store the son of his elder l)rother to the possession of Ids in- 
heritance. John, believing that xVrthur, though now a prisoner,, 
might at some future time prove dangerous, determined to. 



120 JOHN LACKLAND. [1302-6. 

prevent all future peril, had liiui made aM^ay witli, and the 
young prince was never heard of after. 

John was accused of the murder by King Philip, and was 
summoned to defend himself before the peers of France. He 
refused to attend the court, and judgment was proMounced : 
" That John, Duke of Xormandy, in violation of his oath to 
Philip, his lord, had murdered the son of his elder brother, a 
homager of the crown of France, and had perpetrated the 
" crime witliin the dominion of France ; " he was found guilty 
of murder, felony, and treason, and was therefore adjudged to 
forfeit all the lands he held by homage in that country. This 
decree of forfeiture was vigorously put in force by Philip, and 
he took possession of all his French territories, except Guienne, 
and John tied to England, 1203. 

The English barons, lindiug that they must suffer the dis- 
grace of seeing the progress of the French arms without resis- 
tance, returned to their own country. 

John now applied to Pope Innocent III., entreated him to 
interpose his authority between him and the French monarch. 
The Pope called on Philip to stop the progress of his arms, and 
to make peace with the King of England. But the French 
barons received the message with indignation, and disclaimed 
the Pope's temporal authority, and vowed they would assist 
their king against all his enemies. 

Jolm, that he might cover his own disgrace, exclaimed loudly 
against his English barons, Mdio, he pretended, had deserted 
his standard in Normandy, and he arbitrarily extorted from tliem 
a seventh of all their movables as a punishment. The next 
year, 1205, he summoned them all to attend him on a foreign 
expedition, and collected ships from all the seajiorts, but meet- 
ing with some opposition from his ministers, abandoned his 
design, and dismissed his fleet and army, accusing the barons of 
again deserting liim. 

•In 1206 John again crossed to France with a considerable 
army, and landed at Rochelle. He marched to Angers, which 
he took, and reduced to ashes; but the approach of Philip 
with an army threw him into a panic, and he immediately 
made proposals for peace, and fixed a place for an interview 



1209-14.] JOHN LACKLAND. ^O^ 

with ]iis enemy ; but, instead of keeping liis engagement, stole 
off with liis army, embarked at Rochelle, and returned loaded 
with new shame and disgrace to England. 

The following year he became involved in a contest with 
the (;lergy and the Church. lie seized its possessions, and 
banished those who occupied them. Innocent III., the most 
powerful Pope who ever occupied the papal chair, laid England 
under interdict, and, in 1209, a bull of excommunication was 
issued against him, and John sought to prevent its promul- 
gation in England, w^ithout wliicli it could have no force. His 
fear now was that Philip would attempt the conquest of Eng- 
land under papal authority. In the meantime he compelled 
William, King of Scotland, to acknowledge his authority, 
effected the conquest of AVales, and led an army into Ireland, 
dividing the English possessions there into counties, and estab- 
lished English law. 

In 1213 the Pope solemnly deposed John, and aljsolved all 
his vassals from their allegiance. The Erench king prepared 
to enforce the sentence, and John assembled a numerous army 
to defend his kingdom, but as he could not rely on its fidelity, 
he listened to the arguments of the Pope's Nuncio, and resigned 
his kingdom to the Sovereign Pontiff, whose vassal he became, 
May 13tli. The nuncio, Pandolpli, then proceeded to Erance, 
where he commanded Philip to put an end to his project of 
invading England, as it had become the patrimony of St. Peter.' 

Jolm, exulting in his present security, now thought of in- 
vading Erancb in his turn, and recovering all those provinces 
which Philip had taken from him. He proposed this expe- 
dition to the barons who were then assembled for the defence 
of the kingdom, but they both hated and despised their king, 
and saw no success to any enterprise conducted by such a 
leader ; and pretending that their time of service was expired, 
and all their provisions exhausted, refused to second his under- 
takings ; he, however, embarked with a few folloM'ers, but ac- 
complished nothing. 

Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, formed a plan, in the 
year 1214, of reforming the government, and at a private 
meetino; with some of the barons in London, showed them a 



122 JOHN LACKLAND. tl::i4-15. 

copy of tlie cliarter of llemy I., which he said he had lately 
found, and exhorted them to insist on the renewal and observ- 
ance of it. The barons swore they would rather lose their 
lives than depart from so reasonable a demand ; the confeder- 
acy soon spread, and included all the barons of England, and a 
new and more numerous meeting was summoned, when they 
unanimously agreed that they would, in a body, demand their 
rights, and in the meantime separate, put themselves in a pos- 
ture of defence, enlist men, purchase arms, and su|)ply their 
castles with necessary provisions. 

The barons appeared in London January G, 1215, by a]ipoint- 
ment, and demanded of the king a renewal of Henry's charter, 
and a confirmation of the Laws of Edward. 

The king alarmed at tlieir zeal and unanimity, as well as their 
power, asked for a delay, and pronused that at the festival of 
Easter he would give them a positive answer to their petition ; 
and offered four of the principal ministers as sureties for the 
fulfilling this engagement. 

The barons accepted the terms, and peaceably returned to 
their castles. 

John, in order to break or subdue the league of his barons, 
endeavored to avail himself of the aid of the ecclesiastical power, 
granted the clergy a charter, relinquished important preroga- 
tives, vowed to lead an army against the infidels, and sent an 
agent to Home, in hopes to receive the protection of the Pope. 

The l>arons were not negligent on their part to engage the 
Pope in their interest, and despatched Eustace de Yescie, asking 
him to intei-pose his authority with the king, and oblige him to 
restore and confirm their just and undoubted privileges ; but the 
barons soon found they nmst reckon on having the l\)pe as well 
as the king against them. 

On April 27, 1215, the barons advanced hi a body to P) rack- 
ley, within fifteen miles of Oxfoixl, where the king then held 
court, and there received a message from him desiring to know 
what those liberties were which they now demanded from their 
sovereign. 

They then delivered to the messenger, the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, a schedule containing the chief articles of these 



1215.] JOHN LACKLAND. 123 

demands, wliicli was no sooner shown to the king than lie hnrst 
into a violent passion, and asked why the barons did not also 
deinand of him his kingdom, swearing he would never grant 
them such liberties as must reduce him to slavery. 

Iso sooner were the confederated nobles informed of John's 
reply than they chose Kobert Fitz Walter their general, and 
immediately proceeded to make war on the king. They be- 
sieged the castle of Xorthampton, the gates of Bedford Castle 
were willingly opened to them, and on May 24:th advanced on 
London, and without opposition were received into the capital, 
from Avhich city they made incursions, laying waste the king's 
parks and palaces, and all the barons who had supported the 
royal party were glad to join a cause which they had always 
secretly favored. The king, finding himself deserted by all but 
a small retinue, was obliged to submit at discretion. 

A conference between the king and barons was appointed at 
Kunnemede, between Staines and Windsor, for June 15th. The 
two parties camped apart, like open enemies, and after a debate 
of a few daj's, he signed and sealed the charter required of him. 

This famous charter granted or secured very important liber- 
ties and privileges to every order of men in the kingdom, and is 
now known as Magna Charta. It was signed June 19, 1215. 

Pope Innocent, considering himself as feudal Lord of the 
kingdom, was incensed at the temerity of the barons, who 
though they pretended to appeal to his authority, dared, with- 
out waiting for his consent, to impose terms upon a prince who 
had placed himself and crown under the Papal protection. He 
immediately issued a "bull" annnlling and abrogating the whole 
charter, and pronounced sentence of excommunication against 
every one who should persevere in maintaining such treason- 
able and iniquitous pretensions. 

Civil war now commenced, and the king raised an army of 
mercenaries, and attacked the barons in their different castles. 
From the first he was master of the field, and now became sul- 
len, silent, and reserved ; he shunned the society of his courtiers 
and nobles. 

The barons, now reduced to desperate extremity, their prop- 
erty and lives menaced, made application to King Philip for 



124 JOHN LACKLAND. [1216. 

assistance, and promised to acknowledge Lewis, liis eldest son, 
as their sovereign, on condition that he w^oiild afford them pro- 
tection from the violence of their enraged king. Philip, after 
exacting a number of noble hostages as a security for the safety 
of his son, sent over an army with Prince Lewis at their head, 
whose arrival caused the desertion of John's foreign troops, who 
were mostly levied in Flanders and other provinces of France. 
John was about to fight a battle for his crown, when he lost his 
baggage, treasure, carriages, and regalia, in the Wash, and suf- 
fering from sickness at the time, it so affected his mind, that he 
died soon after at Kewark, October 19, 1216. The barons, find- 
ing Lewis had secret intentions of exterminating them and their 
families, and bestowing their estates on his own followers, de- 
serted him, and he was compelled to return to France. 

The character of John is nothing but a complication of vices, 
lie was about the worst outcome of the Angevins. lie united 
into one mass of wickedness their insolence, their selfishness, 
their unbridled lust, their cruelty and tyranny, their shameless- 
ness, their superstition, and their indifference to honor and truth. 

In mere boyhood he had torn, with brutal levity, the beards 
of the Irish chieftains who came to own him as their Lord. 
His ingratitude and perfidy had brought down his father's hairs 
with sorrow to the grave. To his brother he had been the 
worst of traitors. All Christendom believed him to be the 
murderer of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany. He had aban- 
doned one wife, and was faithless to another. His punishments 
were refinements of cruelty : the starv^ation of children, the 
crushing old men under copes of lead. His court was a brothel, 
where no woman was safe from the royal lust, and where his 
cynicism loved to publish the news of his victim's shame. He 
was as craven in his superstition, as he was daring in his impiety. 
He scoffed at priests, and turned his back on the Mass, but he 
never stirred on a journey without hanging relics around his 
neck. 

But with the supreme wickedness of his race he inherited its 
profound ability. 

Contemporary Kulers. — Scotland : William, Alexander 11. ; 
France : Philip II. ; Emperors of the West : Philip, Otho TV. 



1216.] HENRY III. 125 



Henry III. — A.D. 1216-1272. 

Born at Winchester, October 1, 1207. 
Crowned October 28, 1216. 

Married, January 14, 12:^6, Eleanor, second daughter and co-heiress of Ray- 
mond Berenger, Count of Provence, by whom he had issue : 
John, died young. 
Henry, died young. 
Edward, his successor. 

Edmund — -surnamed Crouchback — born 1245, Earl of Lancaster, Leicester, 
and Derby ; married, first, Avalina, daughter of the Earl of Albemarle. 
No issue. Second, Blanche, Queen-Dowager of Navarre. Issue : 

Thomas. 

Henry. 

Maud, married William de Burg. 

Blanche, married Lord Wake. 

Eleanor, married Lord Beaumont. 

Isabel, Abbess of Amesbury. 

Joan, married Lord Mowbray. 

Mary, married Lord Percy. 
Died at St. Edmundsbury, November 16, 1272, 
Buried at Westminster Abbey. 

Henry was the eldest son of John and his queen, Isabel of 
Angouleme. He was born at Winchester on October 1, 1207 ; 
ascended the throne on the death of his father in the ninth 
year of his age. His reign was the longest in English history, 
except that of George HI. 

Henry's minority at his accession and the great power ac- 
quired by the barons in the latter part of King John's reign, 
crippled his power, and made his reign a weak one. 

The Earl of Pembroke, who at the time of John's death was 
Marshal of England, was, in virtne of his office, at the head of 
the army, and during the civil wars at the head of the govern- 
ment, and it happened fortunately for the young king and the 
nation that the power could not have been in more able or 
faithful hands. Tr.is nobleman, who had maintained his loyalty 
unshaken to John during his worst fortune, was determined to 
support the authority of the infant prince ; nor was he dismayed 
at the number or violence of his enemies. 

Sensible that Henry, according to the prejudices of the times, 
would not be considered a sovereio-n until crowned and 



126 HENRY III. [1216. 

anointed by a clmrcliman, he iniinediatelv earned the young 
prince to Gloucester, where tlie ceremony was performed on 
October 28, 1216, by tlie Bishops of AYinchester and Bath, and 
in presence of Gualo, the Legate, and a few noblemen. 

As tire coilcurrence of the papal authority M-as requisite to 
support the tottering throne, Henry was obliged to swear fealty 
to the Pope, and renew that homage to which his father had 
already subjected the kingdom. 

In order to enlarge the authority of Pembroke, and to give 
him a more regular and legal title to it, a general council of the 
barons was summoned at Bristol. They met on Xovember 11th, 
and he was then elected Protector of the realm. 

His first act was to confirm Magna Charta, and conciliate the 
discontented barons by writing letters to tliem, in the king's 
name, saying " that whatever jealousy and animosity they 
migiit have entertained against the late king, a young prince, 
the lineal heir of their ancient monarchs, had now succeeded 
to the throne, without succeeding either to the resentments 
or the principles of his predecessor ; tliat the desperate ex- 
pedient which they had employed of calling in a foreign po- 
tentate had, happily for them, as well as for the nation, 
failed of entire success, and it was still in their power, by 
a speedy return to their duty, to restore the independence of 
the kingdom, and to secure that liberty for which they con- 
tended. ^ These considerations, enforced l)y the character and 
honor which Pembroke ever maintained, had a great influence 
on the barons, and most of them began secretly to negotiate 
with him, and others openly returned to their duty. 

Prince Lewis had in the meantime returned from France 
with fresh forces from that kingdom, and found his party was 
greatly weakened by the desertion of so many of his English 
confederates, and that the death of John had, contrary to his 
expectations, given an incuralde wound to his cause. Pem- 
broke, much strengthened by the accession of the discontented 
barons, ventured to invest Mount Sorel, the Fi-ench stronghold, 
but on the approach of the Count de Perch M'ith large rein- 
forcemeiits, desisted from the enterprise. De Perch, elated 
with his success, marched to Lincoln, and being admitted into 



1217.] HENRY III. jO^ 

the town, began to attack the castle, wliich he soon reduced to 
extremity. The Protector smninoned all his forces, from eveiy 
quarter, to relieve a place of such importance ; and he ap- 
peared so much superior to the Frencli, that they shut them- 
selves within the city and resolved to act npon the defen- 
sive. But the garrison of the castle had received large rein- 
forcements, and made a vigorous sally npon the besiegers, while 
the English army, by concert, assisted tliem at the same instant 
from without, mounted the walls by scalade, bore down all re- 
sistance, and entered the city, sword in hand. 

Lincoln was delivered over to be pillaged ; the French army 
totally rented, the Count de Perch Avas killed, and many of the 
chief commanders, and about four hundred knights were made 
prisoners by the English. 

Prince Lewis w^as informed of this fatal defeat while em- 
ployed in the siege of Dover. He immediately retreated to 
London, the centre and life of his party, and there received in- 
telligence of a new disaster, which put an end to all his hopes. 
A French fleet bringing over large reinforcements had appeared 
on the coast, where they w^ere attacked by the English and com- 
pletely routed with great loss. 

After this second misfortune of the French the remaining 
discontented English barons hastened to make peace with the 
Protector, and by an early submission prevent those attainders 
to which they were exposed. 

Lewis, whose cause was now completely lost, became anxious 
about the safety of his person, and being anxious to escape on 
honorable conditions, soon made a peace with Pembroke, and 
promised to evacnate the kingdom, and only stipulated, in re- 
turn, an indemnity to his adherents, and a restitution of their 
fortunes and honors, together with an equal enjoyment of those 
liberties which had been granted to the rest of the nation. 

Thus was happily ended a civil war wdiicli had seemed to 
be founded on the most incurable hatred and jealousy, and had 
threatened the kingdom with the most fatal consequences. 

After the expnlsion of the French the Protector received the 
the rebellious barons into favor, and strictly observed the terms 
of peace he had granted them. Not so Gualo, the Pope's le- 



12S HENRY III. [1218-23. 

gate, who prepared to take vengeance on tliem for their disobe- 
dience to their 'spiritual head. Many of them were deposed, 
many suspended, some hanislied, and those who escaped punisli- 
ment made atonement for their offence by paying harge sums of 
money to the legate, who amassed a large fortune by this ex- 
pedient. 

The Earl of Pembroke did not long survive the pacification, 
which had been cliiefly owing to his wisdom ; he died soon after, 
and the power passed into the hands of the Bishop of ^V^inches- 
ter and Hubert de Burg, the justiciary. 

They had not the influence of Pembroke, and could not con- 
trol the barons, who retained, by force, the royal castles they 
had seized during the late civil war, or had been committed to 
their custody by the Protector ; they usurped the king's domain ; 
they oppressed their vassals, and invited disorderly people to 
enter their service and to live upon their land. The conse- 
quences were internal commotions. 

In the year 1222, De Burg applied to tlie Pope, who had 
always great authority in the kingdom, and was now considered 
as its superior lord, and requested him to issue a " bull " declar- 
ing the king to be of full age, and entitled to exercise, in person, 
all the acts of royalty. In consequence De Burg resigned into 
Henry's hands the two iuq:>ortant fortresses, the Tower and 
Dover Castle, which had been entrusted to his custody, and he 
required the other barons to imitate his example. 

They refused compliance, and several of them formed a con- 
spiracy to surprise London, and met in arms at Waltham for 
that purpose, but finding the king prepared for defence, they 
desisted from their enterprise. 

The archbishop and prelates, finding everything tending to- 
ward civil war, interposed with their authority, and threatened 
the barons with excommunication if they persisted in detaining 
the king's castles. This menace at last prevailed, and most of 
them were surrendered ; and it is said there were eleven hun- 
dred and fifteen at that time in England. 

In the year 1222, Henry demanded of Lewis VIII. of France, 
who had succeeded his father Philip, the restitution of Nor- 
mandy, and other provinces wrested from England, but instead i 



1323-31.] HENRY III. 129 

of complying with liis claim he made an invasion into Poitou, 
took Eochelle after a long siege, and seemed determined to ex- 
pel the English from the few provinces which still remained to 
them. Henry sent over his uncle, the Earl of Salisbury, to- 
gether with his brother Ilichard, the Earl of Cornwall. Salis- 
bury stopped the progress of Lewis's arms, and retained the 
Poitevin and Gascon vassals in their allegiance, but no great 
action of any moment was performed on either side. 

The character of the king, as he grew to man's e'state, became 
every day better known ; and he was found in every respect 
nnqualified for maintaining a proper sway among those turbu- 
lent barons, whom the -feudal constitution subjected to his au- 
thority. Gentle, humane, and merciful to a fault, he seems to 
have been steady in no other circumstance of his character, but 
to have received every impression from those who surrounded 
him, and whom he loved for the time, with the most imprudent 
and unreserved affection ; but too feeble, in those disorderly 
times, to sway a sceptre whose weight depended entirely on the 
firmness and dexterity of the hand which held it. 

The ablest and most virtuous minister that Henry ever pos- 
sessed was Hubert de Bui-g, who, while he enjoyed his authority, 
had an entire ascendancy over the king, and was loaded with 
lienors and favors beyond any other subject ; yet Henry, in a 
sudden caprice, throw off his faithful minister, and exposed him 
to the violent persecution of his enemies, and afterward con- 
fined him in the Castle of Devizes, from "udiich he made his 
escape in 1231, was expelled the kingdom, but was afterward 
allowed to return, and again taken into favor, but never showed 
any inclination to reinstate himself in power and authority. 

Trie man who succeeded him in the government of the king 
and kingdom, was Peter, Bishop of Winchester, a Poitevin by 
birth, who had been raised by the late king. His first advice to 
Henry was to invite over a great number of his countrymen, 
who, he believed, could be more safely entrusted with ofiice than 
the English, and who would be useful to counterbalance the 
great and independent power of the nobility. Every office and 
command was bestowed on the strangers ; they exhausted the 
revenues of the crown, already impoverished, they invaded the 



130 HENRY in. [1232-36. 

rights of the people, and their insolence, still more provoking 
than their power, drew on them' the hatred and en\y of all 
classes of men. 

The barons formed a combinr^tion and withdrew from Par- 
liament, and when summoned to attend, answered that the 
king should dismiss his foreigners, otherwise they would drive 
both him and them out of the kingdom, and put the crown on 
another head more worthy to wear it. 

They at last came to Parliament, but so well attended that 
they seemed in a condition to prescribe laws to the king and 
ministry. 

But Winchester found means of sowing dissensions among 
them, and of bringing over to his party some of the most pow- 
erful of them. He then easily disconcerted the remainder of 
the confederates, and confiscated their estates, without legal 
sentence or trial by their peers, bestowing them, with profuse 
liberality, on the Poitevins. Peter even carried liis insolence 
so far as to declare that the barons of England must not pre- 
tend to put themselves on the same footing as those of France, 
or assume the same liberties or privileges. 

So violent a ministry as that of the Bishop of Winchester 
could not be of long duration, but its fall proceeded at last 
from the influence of the Church, not from the efforts of the 
nobles. 

Edmund, the primate, came to court attended by many of 
the other prelates, and represented to the king the pernicious 
measures embraced by Peter, the discontents of his people, and 
ruin of his affairs ; and, after requiring the dismission of the 
minister and his associates, threatened him with excommuni- 
cation if he refused, Henry was obliged to submit, the for- 
eigners were banished, and the natives were restored to their 
places. 

The primate, who w^as a man of prudence, and Avho took 
care to execute the laws and observe the charter of liberties, 
bore the chief sway in the government. 

The king married Eleanor, daughter of the Count of Prov- 
ence, January 14, 1236, and many of her countrymen were in- 
vited over to England, and shared in the king's bounty. Four 



1237-42.] HENRY III. 131 

of the queen's uncles came over; one was enriched by the 
grant of Richmondshire. The Savoy palace in the Strand still 
recalls the magnificence of a second (Peter of Savoy), who was 
raised for the time to the chief place in the council. Langton, 
the archbishop, dying at this time, Boniface, a third nncle, was 
promoted to the See of Canterbury, the highest post in the 
realm, save the crown itself. The young pi-imate, like his 
brothers, brought with him foreign fashions strange to the 
English people. Ilis armed retainers pillaged the markets, and 
his own archepiscopal fist felled to the ground the Prior of St. 
Bartholomew, who opposed his visitation. London was roused 
by the outrage, and, on the king's refusal to do justice, a noisy 
crowd of citizens surrounded the primate's house with cries of 
vengeance, and he was glad to escape over the sea. The brood 
of Proven9als was soon followed by the arrival of the Poite- 
vin relatives of John's queen, Isabel of Angouleme. Aymer 
was made Bishop of Winchester, William of Valence received 
the earldom of Pembroke, and even the king's jester was a 
Poitevin. Hundreds of tlleir dependents followed these great 
lords to find a fortune in the English realm. Peter of Savoy 
brought in his train a bevy of ladies in search of husbands, and 
three young English earls, wards of the king, were obliged to 
marry some of them. 

The whole machinery of the administration passed ink) the 
hands of men ignorant and contemptuous of the principles of 
English government. Their rule was a mere anarchy ; the very 
retainers of the royal household turned robljers, and pillaged 
foreign merchants in the precincts of the court. Corruption 
invaded the judicature. Henry de Batt, a justiciary, was 
proved to have openly taken bribes, and to have adjudged to 
himself disputed estates. 

Meanwhile the royal treasury was squandered in a friA'olous 
attempt to wrest Poitou from the grasp of France ; tlie at- 
tempt ended in failure and shame. At Taillebourg the forces 
under Henry fled in disgraceful rout before the French, as far 
as Santes, and only the sudden illness of Louis IX., and a dis- 
ease which scattered his army, saved Bordeaux from the con- 
querors, and Henry was obliged to return with loss of honor to 



132 HENRY III. [1344-5S. 

England, and was forced to appeal f<:)r aid to the great council 
of the realm, which was granted on condition that he wonld 
eoniirin the charter. * It was confirmed and steadily disre- 
garded. 

The Gascon nohility were attached to the English govern- 
ment becanse the distance of the sovereign allowed them to 
remain almost in a state of total independence, and they 
claimed Henry's protection, in the year 1253, against an in- 
vasion which the King of Castile made npon that territory. 
Henry returned to Gnienne and was more snccessfnl, bnt he 
thereby involved himself and his nobility in debt, which in- 
creased their discontent, and exposed him to greater danger 
afterward. 

The Pope at this time demanded and obtained a tenth of all 
ecclesiastical revenues, which he levied in a very oppressive 
manner. The chief benefices of the kingdom were conferred 
on Italians, and great numbers of that nation were sent over to 
be pro\-ided for. Mansel, the king's chaplain, is said to have 
held seven hundred ecclesiastical livings at one time. The 
people, entering into associations, rose against the Italian clergy, 
pillaged and laid waste their lands, insulted their persons 
wdierever found, and when the justices made inquiry into the 
authors of the disorders, the guilt was found to involve so 
manV, and those of such high rank, that it passed unpunished. 

In ] 255 the Pope offered Henry the crown of Sicily for his 
son Edmund, but the project brought much dishonor on the 
king, and involved him in great trouble and expense for a num- 
ber of years. He applied to Parliament for supplies, and that 
he might be sure of not meeting with opposition, he sent no 
M'rits to the refractory barons ; but even those he summoned 
determined not to waste their money on such projects, made a 
pretext of the absence of their brethren, and refused his de- 
mands. 

Tlie discontent of the barons still continued, and came to a 
head in the year 1258, when the imprudent and illegal measures 
afforded a pretence to Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, to 
attempt a change of the government, and to wrest the sceptre 
from the feeble and irresolute hand which held it. He secretly 



1258.] HENRY IIL 233 

called a meeting of tlie barons, and represented to tliem the 
necessity of reforming the state and putting the execution of 
the laws into other hands, as the king's word could no longer he 
trusted. These sentiments so well suited the barons, they at 
once decided on taking into their own hands the administration 
of the government. 

Henry, having summoned a Parliament, hoping to receive 
supplies for his Sicilian project, the barons appeared in the 
hall clad in full ai-mor. The king, on entering, was struck with 
their unusual appearance, and asked them their purpose, and if 
they intended to make him their prisoner. Eoger Bigod re- 
plied in the name of the rest, " that he was not their prisoner, 
but their sovereign ; that they even intended to grant him sup- 
plies, in order to place his son on the throne of Sicily, but as he 
had frequently made promises and had acknowledged past 
errors, and had still continued in the same path, which gave 
them such reason for complaint, he must now yield to more 
strict regulations, and confer authority on those who were able 
and willing to redress the national wrongs." Henry, partly 
allured by the hopes of supply, and partly intimidated, agreed 
to their demands, and promised to summon another Parliament 
in order to settle the new form of government. 

This Parliament met at Oxford, June 11, 1158. The barons 
brought with them their military vassals. The king had taken 
no precautions — was, in reality, a prisoner in their hands — and 
was obliged to submit to all the terms which they were })leased 
to impose upon him. Twelve barons were selected from among 
the king's ministers and twelve selected by Parliament, to whom 
unlimited authority was given to reform the state, and the 
king took an oath that he would maintain whatever ordinances 
they should think proper to enact for that purpose. 

Leicester was at the head of this supreme council, and it was 
ordered that four knights should be chosen by eacli county, 
and they should make inquiry into the grievances with which 
their neighborhood had reason to complain, and should attend 
the ensuino- Parliament in order to ffive that assendtlv informa- 
tion. 

Meanwhile the twenty-four barons proceeded to enact other 



13i HENRY in. [1259-61. 

regulations and redress such grievances as were sufficiently 
notorious, but instead of continuing in this popular course, or 
granting supplies to the king, which they had promised him, 
they immediately provided for the extension of their own 
authority. They roused anew the popular clamor against 
foreigners, and fell with the utmost violence on the king's half- 
brothers, who were supposed to be the authors of all national 
grievances. The four brothers, sensible of their danger, teok 
to tlight. The government was now in the hands of the barons, 
but by their arbitrary conduct they lost the popularity they once 
enjoyed. 

Hearing that the king's brother, Richard, King of the Ko- 
mans, intended to pay England a visit in the year 1259, the 
ruling barons feared his influence, and tried to prevent his 
coming. They sent the Bishop of Worcester to meet him at 
St. Omar, asked him, in the name of the barons, the reason of 
his journey, how long he intended to stay, and insisted that be- 
fore he entered England he should swear to observe the regu- 
lations established at Oxford. 

On Richard's refusal to take this oath, they prepared to re- 
sist him as a public enemy ; fitted out a fleet, asseinbled an 
army, and exciting the prejudices of the people, the King of the 
Romans was obliged to submit to the terms required of him. 

A treaty favorable to Henry was made May 20, 1259, with 
Louis IX., King of France, who delivered up some territories 
conquered from Poitou and Guienne, and agreed to pay Henry 
a large sum of money, and only required that the king in return 
should make a final cession of Kormandy and the other prov- 
inces, which he could never entertain hopes of recovering by 
force of arms. 

The cession was ratified by Henry, by his two sons and two 
daughters, and by Richard and his three sons. 

In 1261 the Pope absolved the Icing and all his subjects from 
the oath which he had taken to observe the provisions sworn to 
at Oxford. On receiving this absolution from his oath, Henry 
immediately issued a proclamation justifying his conduct ; de- 
clared he had again resumed tlie government, and was deter- 
mined to exert the royal authority for the protection of his 



1263-64.] HENRY EI. 135 

subjects, and on April 23, 1263, he removed the principal offi- 
cers of the government, substituted new sheriffs, placed new 
governors in most of the castles, and changed all the officers of 
his household ; he summoned a new Parliament, in which the 
Resumption of his authority was ratified ; and the barons, after 
. making one fruitless attempt to take the king by surprise at 
Winchester, were obliged to acquiesce in the new regulations. 

In 1263 Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, entered into a conspiracy 
with the Earl of Leicester, and invaded England with thirty 
thousand men. He was met and defeated b}' Prince Edward, 
wdio was prevented making further progress against the enemy 
owing to disorders just broke out in England. The Welsh in- 
vasion was the signal for the malcontent barons to rise in arms 
against the king ; and Leicester, coming over secretly from 
France, collected all the forces of his party together and com- 
menced an open rebellion. The king, being unable to resist 
their power, was obliged to sue for peace, and on July 18, 1263, 
made an 'accommodation with the barons, promising to agree to 
and confirm anew the provisions of Oxford, even those which 
completely annihilated the royal authority. 

Prince Edward had previously been taken prisoner by Leices- 
ter, and that misfortune had determined Henry to submit to 
the conditions imposed on him. 

The prince soon recovered his liberty, and employed his 
time in defending the prerogatives of his family. He soon 
formed a party, and gained many who .at first adhered to the 
cause of the barons. 

The two parties were now pretty evenly balanced, and the 
clamor of the people obliged tlie king to open negotiations with 
the barons, and it was agreed on both sides to submit their dif- 
ferences to the King of France to arbitrate between them. On 
January 21, 1261, he rendered his decision. 

He annulled the provisions of Oxford, restored to the king 
possession of his castles and the power of nominating to office ; 
to retain what foreigners he pleased in his kingdom, and de- 
clared that a general amnesty should be granted for past 
offences. 

This award Was no sooner heard in Ensjland than Leicester 



136 HENRY III. [1204. 

and his party determined to reject it, and inimediatelj prepared 
for war. 

The king and prince, finding war inevitable, prepared them- 
selves for defence, and summoning their military vassals from 
all quarters, they formed a formidable army, and met the 
enemy on several occasions ; the kingdom was thus exposed in 
a moment to greater devastations than it would have suffered 
from foreign invasion. 

Leicester, who possessed great talent for war, led his army 
with skill and secrecy, and attacked the king's army on May 14, 
1264, at Lewes, in Sussex, where he defeated it with gi-eat 
slaughter, and obliged the king to surrender himself prisoner. 

Prince Edward was also obliged to submit to all Leicester's 
terms, and agreed to deliver himself and Henry d'Allmaine, 
Itichard's son, up as hostages, in lieu of the two kings, Henry 
and Richard, and that the prisoners on both sides should be 
released. 

Leicester had so sooner gained this advantage, and gotten the 
whole royal family in his power, than he openly violated every 
article of the treaty, and acted as sole master and tyrant of the 
kingdom, and retained the kings prisoners. lie summoned a 
Parliament, composed altogether of his own partisans, in order 
to rivet by their authority the power he had acquired by 
violence. 

The Pope, adhering to the king's cause against the barons, 
despatched Cardinal Cluido as his legate to England, with orders 
to excommunicate the Earls of Leicester, Gloucester, and Kor- 
folk, and all others who concurred in the captivity of their 
king. Leicester menaced the legate with death if he set foot 
within the kingdom, but Guido meeting in Fi'ance the Bishops 
of London, Winchester, and Worcester, commanded them, under 
the penalty of ecclesiastical censures, to carry the " bull " into 
England and publish it against the barons. On their arrival off 
the coast they were boarded by piratical mariners of the Cinque 
Ports, to whom they probably gave a hint of their commission, 
when the bull was seized, torn into fragments, and thrown into 
the sea. 

That he might increase and turn to advantage his popularity. 



1365-70.] HENRY III. 137 

Leicester summoned a new Parliament on January 20, 12G5, in 
London, where he knew his power was uncontrollable, and he 
fixed this assembly on a more democratic basis than any ever 
before sunnnoned. Besides the barons and ecclesiastics, he 
ordered writs to be made for the return of two knights .from 
each shire, and, what^ is more remarkable, of deputies from 
boroughs, an order of men who in former ages had been re- 
garded as too mean to enjoy a place in the nation's councils. 
This period is generally considered as the origin of the House 
of Commons of to-day in England. 

Prince Edward still languished in prison since the battle of 
Lewes, but Leicester, finding a strong feeling among the nation 
for his release, consented, and stipulated that in return Edward 
should order his adherents to deliver up their castles, and should 
swear neither to depart from the 'kingdom dm-ing three years, 
nor introduce into it any foreign force. 

Li consequence of this treaty, Prince Edward was brought 
into Westminster Llall, and declared free ; but he soon found 
he was only a prisoner at large, and was continually guarded by 
Leicester's emissaries. He succeeded, however, in making his 
escape. The royalists, who had been preparing for this event, 
immediately flew to arms, and soon Edward was at the head of 
an army that Leicester was unable to withstand, and on August 
4, 1265, both armies met at Eversham. Edward was victorious, 
Leicester's army was entirely routed, and he himself slain in the 
heat of the action. 

The victory of Eversham M^as the death of the rebellion, and 
the clemency of the king was remarkable ; no blood was shed 
on the scaffold, and no attainders, except Leicester's Montfort 
family. The king's authority was therefore established, and 
tranquillity restored. 

Prince Edward joined the King of Erance, 1270, in a crusade 
against the infidels, but Lewis dying at Tunis, the prince con- 
tinued his voyage to the Holy Land, where he distinguished 
himself by acts of valor, revived the glory of the English name 
in those parts, and struck terror into the Saracens. 

Meanwhile his absence from England was attended with seri- 
ous consequences ; the laws were not executed, the barons op- 



]^3S EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). [1272. 

pressed the people with impunity, and the old king, unequal to 
the burden of public affairs, called aloud for his gallant son's 
return to assist him in swaying that sceptre which was ready to 
drop from his feeble hands. At last, from the cares of govern- 
ment and the infirmities of age, he expired at St. Edmunds- 
bury, November 16, 1272, in the sixty-fonrth year of his age 
and the fifty-sixth of his reign, and was succeeded by Ed- 
ward I. 

CoNTEMPOKARY RuLERS. — Scotlaud I Alexander IL, Alexan- 
der III. ; France, Philip IL, Louis YIII. (the Lion), Louis IX. 
(St. Louis), Philip III. (the Bold). 

Edward I. (Longshanks) — A.D. 1272-1307. 

Bom at Westminster, June 17, 1239. 

Crowned August 19, 1274. 

Married, first, Eleanor, daughter of Ferdinand III., King of Castile, 1254. 

Had issue : 
Henry, died young. 
Alphonse, died unmarried. 
Edward, created Prince of Wales. 
Eleanor, married Alphonso, King of Arragon. 
Joan of Acre, married Gilbert, Earl of Gloucester. 
Margaret, married the Duke of Brabant. 
Mary, a nun. 

Elizabeth, married Earl of Holland. 

Married, second, Margaret, daughter of Philip III. of France. Had issue : 
Thomas, Earl of Norfolk. 
Margaret, married Lord Seagrave. 
Alice, miarried Edward de Montague. 
Died near Carlisle, July 7, 1307. 

Edward — surnamed Longshanks from the great length of his 
legs^eldest son of Henry HI. and his Queen Eleanor, born at 
"Westminster, June 17, 1239, was absent in the Holy Land 
when Henry died. 

The council of ministers, reflecting on the late civil wars, and 
the animosities naturally remaining after them, had reason to 
fear dangerous consequences from the absence of the son and 
successor of the late king. 

They therefore hastened to proclaim Prince Edward, to swear 
allegiance to him, and to summon the states of the kingdom, in 



1272-74J EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). 139 

order to provide for the public peace, and on November 20, 
1272, he was prochiimed and acknowledged king, and Walter 
Gifford, Archbishop of York, the Earl of Cornwall, son of King 
Richard, and the Earl of Gloucester, were appointed guardians 
of the realm, and proceeded to the exercise of their authority 
without opposition from any party. The high character acquired 
by Edward had procured for him the esteem and affections of 
all classes. He had reached Sicily from the Holy Land when 
he received intelligence of the death of his father, and at the 
same time learned of the death of an infant son, John, whom 
his princess, Eleanor of Castile, had borne him. 

Hearing of the quiet settlement of the kingdom, he was in no 
hurry to take possession of the throne, but spent a year in 
France before he made his appearance in England. He arrived 
in Paris, and did homage to Philip for the dominions he held 
in France. He then went to Guienne, and settled matters in 
that province, which were in some confusion, and after journey- 
ing through the country, arrived in London, whei-e he was re- 
ceived with joyful acclamations by his people, and was solemnly 
crowned at Westminster by Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
August 19, 1274. 

The king immediately applied himself to the re-establishment 
of his kingdom, and to the correcting of disorders and civil 
commotions that the loose administration of his father had in- 
troduced into every department of the government. 

His policy was equally generous and prudent ; he considered 
the great barons both as the rivals of the crown and oppressors 
of the people, and he decided, by the distribution of justice and 
the rigid execution of the laws, to give protection to the inferior 
orders of the state, and to diminish the power of the great; 
and he made the crown regarded by gentiy and commonalty of 
the kingdom as the fountain of justice and an asylum against 
oppression. 

Besides enacting several useful statutes in a parliament which 
he summoned at Westminster, he took care to inspect the con- 
duct of all his magistrates and judges, and to displace those who 
were either negligent or corrupt, to provide sufficient force for 
the execution of justice, to extirpate all bands of robbers, and 



140 EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). 1275-77. 

to repress tlie more silent robberies, committed eitlier bj the 
power of the nobles or under countenance of public authority. 

By tliis rigid administration the face of the kingdom was soon 
changed, and order and justice took tlie phice of violence and 
oppression. Among the various crimes to which the kingdom 
was subject, none was more universally complained of than 
the adulteration of the coinage, and as this required more art 
than the English of that age were possessed of, the imputation 
fell upon the Jews. Edward appears to have indulged strong 
prejudices against that nation, and he let loose the whole rigor 
of his justice against that unhappy people. Two hundred and 
eighty of them were hanged at one time in London alone, be- 
sides those who suffered in other parts of the kingdom, and no 
less than fifteen thousand of them were robbed of their effects 
and banished. 

The active spirit of Edward could not long remain without 
employment ; he soon after undertook an enterprise more pru- 
dent for himself and more advantageous for his people. 

Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, had been deeply engaged with 
the Leicester faction during his fathers reign, and had en- 
tered into all the conspiracies against the crown, and until 
the battle of Eversham, so fatal to that party, had used every 
expedient to depress the royal cause, and to promote that of 
the barons. He still maintained a secret correspondence with 
his old associates, and when Edward i-equired him to come to 
England and do him homage, he declined to put himself into 
the hands of an enemy unless promised a safe conduct from Ed- 
ward, and insisted upon having the king's son and other noble- . 
men delivered to him as hostages. The king was not displeased 
for this occasion of exercising his authority, and subduing the 
principality of Wales. He refused all Llewellyn's demands, 
except that of a safe conduct, sent him repeated siunmonses to 
perform his duty as a vassal, levied an army to reduce him to 
obedience, obtained authority from Parliament, and marched, 
with certain assurance of success, against the enemy, 1277. 
Llewellyn, without being able to strike a blow for his indepen- 
dence, was obliged to submit at discretion, and receive the 
terms imposed upon him by Edward ; he was obliged to pay 



1280-89.] EDWAKD I. (LONGSHANKS). 141 

the king £50,000 for the expenses of the war, and do homage 
to England, but owing to the poverty of the principality the 
fine was remitted. 

The English, now insolent on their easy victory, oppressed 
the inhabitants of the districts that had yielded to them. The 
Lords' Marches, with im.pnnity, committed all kinds of vio- 
lence on their Welsh neighbors, and new and more severe 
terms were imposed upon Llewellyn himself. 

The Welsh were now determined to heal all domestic differ- 
ences, and rather to encounter a superior force than bear op- 
pression. 

Prince David made peace with his brother, and promised to 
help him in the defence of their nuitual liberty. The Welsh 
flew to arms, and Edward, determined to make the conquest 
final and absolute, assembled all his military forces, and ad- 
vanced into Wales. The situation of the country gave the 
Welsh some advantage at first, but Llewellyn was surprised by 
Mortimer, was defeated and slain, and two thousand of his fol- 
lowers put to the swoixl. David, who succeeded him, could never 
collect an army sufficient to face the English, was chased from 
hill to hill, from one retreat to another, and at last, betrayed 
to the enemy, was sent in chains to Shrewsbury, there tried 
and condemned to be hanged, drawn, and quartered as a trai- 
tor. All the Welsh nobility subndtted to the conqueror in the 
year 1283. 

Edward then summoned the leading Welsh, and promised to 
give them a prince of Wales, one born in the principality, and 
who could not speak the English language. On their acclama- 
tions of joy, he then invested his second son, Edward, an in- 
fant, who had been born at Carnarvon, Prince of Wales (his 
eldest son, Alphonso, being dead), affirming that he fulfilled 
the conditions. The principality was then fully annexed to 
the crown, and, from that time to the present day, gives that 
title to the eldest son of the kings and queens of England. 

Li the year 1289 he resolved on the subjugation of Scotland, 
to whose crown there were at this time thirteen claimants ; 
being invited to act as arbitrator, he took possession of many 
of the principal fortresses, and then conferred the crown on 



142 EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). 1296-97. 

Jolin Baliol, wlio soon renounced his allegiance. Edward 
again marched across the Tweed, and gained a great victory at 
Dunbar, 1296, and sent Baliol into exile. lie bore away the 
Scotch crown and sceptre, and left the highest offices in the 
hands of Englishmen under the Earl of Surrey, who received 
the title of Guardian of the Kingdom. 

The Scotch rallied in 1297, under the chieftain. Sir William 
"Wallace, and totally defeating the English at the battle of 
Stirling, September 10th, drove them out of the kingdom. 

Edward had for some time carried on a war with France, 
and was anxious for the recovery of Guienne ; he had despatched 
his brother, the Earl of Lancaster, with an army of seven 
thousand men, and formed an alliance with John, Earl of Hol- 
land, and Guy, Earl of Flanders, and stipulated to pay them a 
sum of money to unite their forces against Philip of France, 
their common enemy. He hoped that when he himself, at the 
head of the English, Dutch, and Flemish armies — reinforced by 
his German allies, to whom he had remitted considerable sums — 
should enter the frontier of France, and threaten the capital 
itself, Philip would at last be obliged to relinquish his acquisi- 
tions, and purchase peace by the restitution of Guienne. But, 
in order to set this great machine in motion, large sums were 
required from Parliament, which he soon accomplished by 
grants, and made levies on the barons, knights, and boroughs, 
but on levying on the clergy he met with considerable opposition, 
and they took shelter under a " bull," issued by Pope Boniface, 
and refused compliance. Instead of applying to the Pope for 
a relaxation of this " bull," he resolved to employ the power 
in his hands, and he told tlia clergy that since they refused to 
support the civil power they were unworthy to receive any 
benefit from it, and he would, accordingly, put them out of the 
protection of the laws ; and this vigorous measure was imme- 
diately carried into execution. 

The clergy soon found themselves in a most miserable situa- 
tion, they could not remain in their own houses or convents, for 
want of sustenance, and if they went abroad, they were dis- 
mouutied and robbed, and no redress could be obtained. 

The spirits of the clergy were at last broken by this harsh 



1397-98.] EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). 143 

treatment, and they were obliged in the end to come forward 
and contribute the fifth required, and receive the king's protec- 
tion. 

Though the money granted by Parliament was considerable, 
it was not sufficient for the king's necessities, and he was obliged 
to exert his arbitrary power. He levied exorbitant taxes on the 
merchants, and seized the product of the land for the supply of 
his armies, which resulted in great dissatisfaction, that some of 
the leading barons were glad to take advantage of, and, by that 
means, preventing his carrying on the war in Guienne, as he 
intended ; but leaving the Prince of Wales and a council in 
charge of the kingdom, he sailed for Flanders, 1297. 

The King of France had previously invaded the Low Countries, 
and defeated the Flemings in several engagements, and seemed 
in a situation to take full vengeance on them, when Edward 
landed with fifty thousand men, and was able to stay his victori- 
ous career. Philip, finding the resources of his kingdom ex- 
hausted, began to dread a reverse of fortune, and apprehended 
an invasion of France itself. 

Edward, on the other hand, was disappointed of assistance 
promised by Adolph, King of the Romans, which he had pur- 
chased at a high price, and, finding many urgent calls for his 
presence in England, was desirous of ending, on any honorable 
terms, a war which seemed only to divert his force from the 
execution of more important projects. 

This disposition in both monarchs soon produced an arrange- 
ment, and a truce was made for two years, and they engaged to 
submit their difficulties to Pope Boniface for arbitration. Boni- 
face brought them in time to agree to the following terms : 
That Edward, who was now a widower, should marry Margaret, 
Philip's sister, and the Prince of Wales, with Isabella, daughter 
of that monarch; that Philip should restore Guienne to the 
English. Their disputes, after mutual concessions, were agreed 
to, Edward promises to abandon his ally, the Earl of Flanders, 
and Philip his ally, the King of Scots. 

Edward, being relieved from all danger on the part of France, 
returned to London, 129S, where he made the citizens conces- 
sions and promises, and was then in a position to wipe out the 



144 EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). [1298-1305. 

disgrace his army had met with at Stirling. lie collected the 
whole military force of England, Wales, and Ireland, of nearly 
one hundred thousand combatants, and marched for Scotland, 
and on July 22d, met the Scots at Falkirk, and utterly de- 
feated them. Sir William AVallace, who commanded the third 
division of the army, escaped, but the subjection of the country 
was not entirely completed, as the English army was obliged to 
retire for want of provisions. 

The Scotch, in the year 1303, chose John Gumming as their 
regent, and, not content with maintaining their independence in 
the north, made incursions into the southern counties, which 
Edward thought he had entirely subdued. John de Seagrave, 
whom he had left guardian of Scotland, led an army to oppose 
them, and, on February 21st, met the enemy, and after three 
separate engagements, the English were defeated, and chased 
from the- field, and the regent soon made himself master of all 
the fortresses of the southern counties. So it became necessary 
for Edward to begin anew the conquest of the kingdom. 

lie immediately assembled a large fleet and great army, and 
entering the frontiers of Scotland, appeared with an army, M'hicli 
the enemy could not meet in the field. He marched victoriously 
from one end of the kingdom to the other, ravaging as he went, 
and reducing all the castles, and received the submissions of the 
regent and all the nobility. 

Having completed his conquest, which employed him for 
nearly two years, he now undertook the more ditficult task of 
settling the countiy, and establishing a new form of govern- 
ment, and making his acquisition durable to the crown of Eng- 
land. He abrogated all the Scottish laws and customs, he 
endeavored to substitute the English in their place, and tried to 
abolish entirely the Scottish name, and to sink finally in the 
English. 

Edward deemed his conquest exposed to danger so long as 
Wallace remained alive, and being prompted by revenge and 
policy, employed every art to discover his retreat. He was at 
last betrayed into Edward's hands, who ordered him to be car- 
ried in chains to London, where he was executed August 23, 
1305, on Tower Hill. 



1306-07.] EDWARD I. (LONGSHANKS). 145 

The war was again kindled by Eobert Bruce, who was elected 
king, 1306, and thongh at first unsuccessful, at length gained a 
decicled victory over the Earl of Pembroke. Edward assembled 
a large army, and was preparing to enter Scotland, deternuned 
to make the Scots the victims of his severity, and certain of suc- 
cess, when he was overtaken by a sickness at Carlisle from which 
he died on July 7, 1307. 

With his last breath he enjoined his son and successor to 
prosecute the war, and never stop until he had finally subdued 
and conquered tlie kingdom. 

With the reign of Edward begins modern England — the 
England in M'hich we live. The parliaments which Edward 
gathered at the close of his reign, are not merely illustrative of 
the history of later parliaments, they are absolutely identical 
with those which still sit at St. Stephen's; and a statute of 
Edward, if unrepealed, can be pleaded in the courts as formally 
as a statute of Victoria, and in his reign the meeting of Parlia- 
ment was restricted to Westminster. Conserv^ators of the Peace 
were appointed, and the King's Court was divided into the 
King's Bench, Exchequer, and Common Pleas, each receiving a 
distinct staff of judges. 

Edward was a tall, stately, austere personage, Avell versed in 
war and government, and thus a great king, though very far in- 
deed from a just and good man. He showed no moi-e regard 
for his word or his oath, or repeated confirmations of Magna 
Charta, than his father had done, but he was merciless in pun- 
ishing any l)reach of engagements to himself, whicli by his sword 
he had obliged others to contract. He was utterly unscruplous, 
but was wise enough to see how far he could safely go. 

He died in the sixtj^-ninth year of his age, and thirty-fifth 
year of his reign, hated by his neiglibors, but respected and 
loved by his own people. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Alexander III., Mar- 
garet, Baliol, Robert I. (Bruce) ; France : Philip III., Philip IV. 
(The Fair) ; Emperors of the West : Rudolph, Adolpli, Albert I. 
10 



146 EDWARD II. [1307. 



Edward II. — A.D. 1307-1327. 

Born at Carnarvon, Wales, April 25, 1284. 

Received as king, July 8, 1307. 

Crowned, February 23, 1308. 

Married, January 28, 1308, Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. of France. Issue: 

Edward, Prince of Wales, who succeeded him. 

John, Earl of Cornwall, died young. 

Joan, married David, King of Scotland. 

Eleanor, married the Duke of Guilders. 

Deposed, January 13, 1327. 

Murdered, September 21, 1327. 

Edward was tlie second son of Edward I. and Eleanor of 
Castile. He was born at Carnarvon Castle, April 25, 1284, 
ascended the throne, on the death of his father, in the twenty- 
fonrth year of his age, Jnlj 8, 1307. 

The nation was prepossessed in young Edward's favor, and on 
the death of his father all men hastened with alacrity to take 
the oath of allegiance to his son and successor, to whom they 
promised a long and happy reign ; but his first act blasted all 
their hopes, and showed him to be totally unqualified for that 
perilous situation in wliich every English monarch, in those daj'S 
of unstable government, found himself placed. 

Kobert Bruce, tliough his army had been dispersed, remained 
not long inactive ; but before the death of the late hing had 
again collected his followers, had appeared in the field, and had 
obtained, by surprise, an important advantage over the English 
forces. He had now become so important a personage as to have 
afforded the King of England sufiicient glory in subduing him, 
without incurring any danger of seeing all those mighty prepa- 
rations made by his father fail in the enterprise. 

But Edward, instead of j^ursuing his advantages, marched but 
a little way into Scotland, and having an utter incapacity and 
equal aversion for all application to serious business, imme- 
diately retraced Ins footsteps, and disbanded his army. Elis 
nobles perceived from this conduct that the authority of the 
crown, fallen into such feeble hands, was no longer to be 
dreaded, and that eveiy insolence might be practised by them 
M^ith impunity. 



1307-08.] EDWARD II. 147 

The next measure performed by Edward was equally dis- 
tasteful. There was one Pierce Gavaston, son of a Gascon 
knight, who had honorably served the king, and as a reward 
for his services received an appointment in the establishment 
of the Prince of Wales for his son. This yonng man soon 
insinuated himself into the affections of his master by supply- 
ing him with those innocent though frivolous amusen:ients by 
which he gained such an entire ascendancy over the young 
prince that the late king, fearing the consequences, had ban- 
ished him the kingdom, and had, before he died, made his son 
promise never to recall him ; but no sooner did he find himself 
master, as he imagined, than he sent for Gavaston, and, even 
before his arrival at court, endowed him with the Eai-ldom of 
Cornwall, which had reverted to the crown on the death of 
Edmund, son of Richard, King of the Romans. Not content 
with this, he loaded him with new honors and riches, married 
him to his own niece, and seemed to enjoy no pleasure unless in 
exalting his favorite. The haughty barons, oifended at the 
superiority of a minion who they looked on as inferior to them- 
selves, did not conceal their discontent, and soon found means 
to justify their animosity in the character and conduct of the 
man they hated. 

Soon after his return from Scotland, Edward undertook a 
journey to France, in order to do homage to Philip for the 
duchy of Guienne, and to marry the Princess Isabella, to whom 
he had long been engaged. Edward left Gavaston guardian of 
the kingdom, with more ample powers than had usually been 
conferred, and on returning with his young queen, renewed all 
the proofs of fond attachment to his favorite, of which every 
one so loudly complained. 

The cjueen was of an imperious and intriguing spirit, and 
finding that her husband's capacity required to be governed, she 
thought herself best entitled to perform that office ; and she 
therefore contracted a mortal hatred against the man who had 
usurped that office and disappointed her in these expectations. 
She was well pleased to see a combination of the nobility form- 
ing against Gavaston, who, sensible of her hatred, had knov/- 
ingly provoked her by insults and injuries. 



148 EDWARD IL [1308. 

Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, consiu to the king, first prince of 
the blood, was the most powerful subject in England. lie was 
turbulent and factious, and mortally hated the favorite, whose 
influence over the king was greater than his own, and he soon 
became the head of that party among the barons who desired 
the I'uin of the insolent stranger. 

Tiie confederated nobles bound themselves Ijy oath to expel 
Gavaston, and both sides began to put themselves in a warlike 
j)osture. 

The licentiousness of the age broke out in rol)berics and dis- 
orders, the usual prelude to civil war, and the royal authority, 
despised in the king's own hands, and hated in Gavaston's, be- 
came insufficient for the execution of the laws and the main- 
tenance of peace in the kingdom. 

A Parliament being sununoned at AYestminster, Lancaster 
and his party came hither, with an armed retinue, and were 
there enabled to impose their own terms on tlie king. 

They recpiired the banishment of Gavaston, and imposed an 
oath on him never to return. 

Edward was obliged to submit, but appointed him Lord 
Lieutenant of Ireland, and attended him to Bristol on his 
journey thither. The king now employed every expedient to 
soften the opposition of the barons, and Lancaster and other 
principal noblemen were conciliated by appointments to 
office. 

But in 1308 Edward applied and received from tlie court of 
Rome a dispensation relieving Gavaston from his oath that he 
would ne^-er return to England, and went down to Chester to 
receive him on his return from Ireland, flew into his ai'ms with 
transports of joy, and having received the consent of the barons 
in Parliament to his re-establishment, sot no longer any bounds 
to his fondness and affection. 

Gavaston, forgetting the past, resumed the same ostentation 
and insolence, and became more than ever the ol)ject of detesta- 
tion among the nobility. 

The barons were now determined on employing sharp and 
effectual means, and determined to make a total alteration in 
the constitution and the civil govermnent. They therefore 



1809-12.] EDWARD II. 149 

attended Parliament in defiance of law, with a nnmerons retinue 
of armed followers, and found themselves masters of the situa- 
tion. They then presented a petition which was equal to a 
demand, requiring Edward to bestow on a chosen commission 
the whole authority of the crown and Parliament, which he 
consented to, and was obliged to sign a warrant, empowering 
the prelates and barons to appoint twelve persons who should, 
until Michaelmas next ensuing, have authority to enact ordi- 
nances for the government of the kingdom and the regulation 
of the king's household. 

The chosen commissionere accordingly fi-amed the ordinances 
and presented them to the king and Parliament the following 
year, and they became law. Orie of them M^as the removal of 
evil councillors, by which a number of persons were by name 
excluded from every office of power and profit, and Gavaston 
was forever banished the kingdom, and persons agreeable to 
the barons were substituted in all offices. It was also ordered 
that the power of making war or assembling his military 
tenants should no longer be vested in the king, without the 
consent of the nobility, 1311. 

Edward removed to York in the year 1312, and freed himself 
in a measure from the terror of the barons' power. He then 
invited Gavaston back from Flanders, and declared Ins banish- 
ment illegal, and, contrary to the laws and customs of the king- 
dom, reinstated him in his former place and authority. The 
barons, provolc^d and apprehensive of danger to themselves from 
the animosity of so powerful a minion, saw that either his or 
their ruin was now inevitable, and they renewed with double 
zeal their confederacies against liim. The Earl of Lancaster 
was the head of this alliance, other powerful noblemen brought 
it a great acquisition of power, and as the Archbishop of Can- 
terbury professed himself of the same party, he determined the 
body of the clergy, and consequently the people, to declare 
against the king. The Earl of Lancaster raised an army, and' 
marched to York, where he found the king had moved to New- 
castle. He marched thither to find Edward just escaped to 
Tyneraouth, where he embarked with Gavaston for Scar- 
borough, and left his favorite in that fortress ; he then marched 



150 EDWARD II. [1312-14. 

to York in hopes of raising an army wliicli might be able to 
support him against liis enemies. 

Pembroke was sent by the confederates to besiege the castle 
of Scarborough, and Gavaston, knowing the bad condition of 
the garrison, was obliged to capitulate on May 10, 1312. 

Pembroke, now master of the person of this public enemy, con- 
ducted him to the Castle of Dediiigton, where he left him pro- 
tected by a feeble guard. Warwick, perhaps in concert with 
Pembroke, attacked the castle ; the garrison not resisting, Gavas- 
ton was yielded up to him and conducted to AVarwick Castle. 
The Earls of Lancaster, Arundel, and Hereford immediately re- 
paired thither, and without any regard to law or the military 
capitulation, ordered the head "of the obnoxious favorite to be 
struck off by the hands of the common executioner. 

Tiie king had retired to Berwick when he heard of Gavas- 
ton's murder ; he threatened vengeance on all the nobility who 
had been concerned in that bloody scene, and made preparations 
for war, but soon after hearkened to terms of accommodation, 
and granted the barons a pardon for all offences, and as they 
promised to ask his pardon on their knees, he M'as so pleased 
that he forgave them all their past injuries. 

The appearing unity of all parties since the death of Gavas- 
ton seemed to restore the kingdom to its native strength, and 
opened up the prospect of again reducing Scotland. Edward 
assembled forces from all quarters, he enlisted troops from 
Elanders and other foreign countries, he invited over large 
numl)ers of the disorderly Irish, and joined to them a large 
body of AVelsli troops, and assembling all the military force of 
England, marched to the borders, with a force of one hundred 
thousand men. 

The army collected by Robert Bruce did not exceed thirty 
thousand combatants, but being composed of men who had dis- 
tinguished themselves by many acts of valor, and who were 
Vendered desperate by their situation, may be deemed formid- 
able to the most numerous and best appointed armies. 

Robert, believing that Stirling Castle was the objective point 
of the English, chose the field of battle with all skill and pru- 
dence at Bannockburn, about two miles from that fortress.' The 



1314-19.] EDWARD II. 151 

English army arrived in sight on the evening of June 24, 1314. 
Early in the morning Edward drew out his army, and advanced 
toward the Scots, the battle commenced, and the Scots were 
\ictoi'ious. The English were seized with a panic, threw down 
their arms and fled ; they were pursued with great slaughter, 
and the king narrowly escaped by taking shelter in Dunbar, 
whose gates were opened to him, and thence passed by sea to 
England. Such was the great and decisive battle of Bannock- 
burn, which secured the independence of Scotland, fixed Bruce 
on the throne of that kingdom, and may be considered the 
greatest overthrow England had received since the conquest. 

This ill-success made Edward more unpopular than ever, 
though he had behaved gallantly in the battle, and Lancaster 
now openly took direction of the government. In this distress 
the king chose another favorite, as he was tei'med, but more 
properly a minister, on M'hose attachment he could rely. This 
was Hugh Despencer, who had been in his liousehold along 
with Gavaston, and was a man well versed in war. He was 
also of noble family, and had many friends and relatives among 
the barons ; he thus formed a strong party that was ready to 
oppose the designs of Lancaster and his associates, who mani- 
fest! v aimed at reducino^ the kino; to a mere state of tulelao-e, if 
not deposing him. 

Encouraged by the success of the Scots at Bannockburn, the 
AVelsh again too]>; uj) arms, and formed an alliance with them, 
M'hilst Edward Bruce (the brother of King Robert) passed into 
Ireland, where he was received with joy by the natives, who 
knew that any change of masters could not be for the worse, so 
tyrannical did the Anglo-Irish lords behave (1315). The Welsh 
were soon put down, but Lancaster and his friends absolutely 
refused to march against the Scots, and it appeared afterward 
that they had entered into a traitorous agreement with them. 
The Scots, unopposed, next took Berwick, and then marching 
into Yorkshire, they ravaged the country, when the king nar- 
nowly escaped capture. But in Ireland the Scots were defeated 
and their leader killed. 

In the year 1319, through the activity of Despencer, he gath- 
ered an army, at the head of which he marched into Scotland, 



152 EDWAKD II. [1319-3.'. 

and besieged Berwick, but was unable to retake it. On his re- 
turn to Engiand, a parliament was held at Westminster, when 
the different parties w-ere reconciled, neither being strong 
enough to put down the other, so a compromise was agreed to. 
Despencer retained his ofhce as Lord Chamberlain, but Lan- 
caster was placed at the head of a council of sixteen appointed 
" to assist the king."" This was followed by a two years' truce 
with the Scots, and before that had ex})ired a total change had 
taken place, which gave, for a while, the government into the 
hands of Despencer. 

A quarrel having occurred between him and the Earl of Here- 
ford about the boundaries of their estates, the latter allied him- 
self with Lancaster, and without attempting to settle the matter 
peaceably the two earls ravaged Despencer's lands, and then 
marching to London held a parliament on their own authority, 
Avhen the favorite and his father were banished, the king having 
no power to assist them. Their banishment was attended by 
the seizure of their property, bat young Despencer soon re- 
turned, bringing with him foreign cross-bow men, to whom the 
king joined himself, when the estates of the earls were ravaged 
in turn (1322). Hereford and Lancaster, now applied to the 
Scots for assistance, and marched to the north to meet their 
allies. They were followed by the king after pardon had been 
offered, and being overtaken at Boroughbridge were there 
totally defeated. The Earl of Hereford was killed in the battle, 
and Lancaster being taken prisoner was tried by court-martial, 
found guilty of treason, and beheaded at Pontefract, March 23, 
1322. Several other noble prisoners were also executed. 

The Lancastrian party being thus crushed, the king led an 
army into Scotland, but he could effect nothing of moment 
owing to the treachery of some of his generals, and a truce of 
fourteen years was soon after concluded. Roger Mortimer es- 
caped from the tower after a year's imprisonment, and succeeded 
in reachiiig France. 

Charles was now on the throne of that country, and he had 
some grounds of complaint against Edward's minister in Gui- 
enne, and was anxious to take advantage of the weakness of 
the English king, ajid under pretence of these complaints to 



1323-25.] EDWARD H. I^g 

confiscate all liis Fi*encli possessions. Qneen Isabella now pro- 
posed to go over to Paris, and endeavor to adjust, in an ami- 
cable manner, the difference with her brother ; but while she 
was making preparations Charles started a new pretension, 
the justice of Mdiicli could not be disputed, that Edward him- 
self should appear at his court and do homage for the fees he 
held in France ; but there were many difficulties in the waj^- 
of complying with this demand. 

Young Despencer, by whom the king was entirely governed, 
had unavoidably been engaged in many quarrels with the 
queen, who aspired to the same influence, and though that art- 
ful princess, on her leaving England, had dissembled her ani- 
mosity, Despencer, well acquainted with her secret sentiments, 
was unwilling to attend his master to Paris, where he might be 
exposed to insults, if not danger, through her influence. Pie 
also objected to the king making the journey alone, fearing that 
Edward might fall under other influences, and foreseeing the 
perils to which he himself would be exposed if without the 
royal protection, knowing he was so generally hated. 

While these doubts occasioned delays and difficulties, Isa- 
bella proposed that Edward should resign the dominion of 
Guieime to liis son Edward, now thirteen years of age, and 
that the prince should come to Paris, and do the homage 
vdiich every vassal owed to his superior lord. This expedient, 
which seemecP to remove all difficulties, was immediately em- 
braced ; young Edward was sent to Pai'is, 1325, and the ruin 
covered under this fatal ^snare was never perceived by any of 
the English council. 

The queen on her arrival in France had there found a great 
number of English fugitives, the remains of the Lancastrian fac- 
tion, among them Eoger Mortimer, a leading baron of the A\''elsli 
Marches, wlio had been condemned for high treason, but fortu- 
nately escaped to France, and being one of the principal per- 
sonages of that party, was easily admitted to pay his court to 
Queen Isabella. The graces of his person and address quickly 
advanced him in her affections ; he soon became her confidant 
and counsellor, and gaining ground daily upon her heart ; he 
obliged her to sacrifice to her passion all the sentiments of 



154: EDWARD II. [1325. 

honor and fidelity to her husband. Hating now the man she 
had injured, and whom she never respected, she entered ar- 
dently in all of Mortimers conspiracies, and liaving artfully 
gotten into her hands the yoinig prince and heir to the king- 
dom, she resolved on the utter ruin of her husband, the king, 
as well as his favorite, and she engaged her brother to take 
part in the same criminal purpose. Her court was daily filled 
with the expelled barons. Mortimer lived in the most declared 
intimacy with her, and a correspondence was secretly carried 
on with the malcontent party in England. When Edward, in- 
formed of these alarming circumstances, required her speedily 
to return with the prince, she replied that she would never set 
foot in England again, till Despencer was forever removed 
from his presence and councils, a declaration which procured 
her great popularity in England, and threw a decent veil over 
her treasonable actions. 

Edward endeavored to put himself in a posture of defence, 
but it was not easy, in tlie present state of the kingdom and 
revenue, to maintain a constant force ready to repel an inva- 
sion, which he knew not at what time or place to expect. 
His brother, the Earl of Kent, a virtuous but weak prince, then 
in Paris, was encouraged Iw Charles and Queen Isabella to 
give encouragement to the invasion, and he prevailed on his 
elder brother, the Eai'l of Norfolk, to join him. The Earl of 
Leicester, brother and heir of the Earl of Lancaster, had too 
many reasons for his hatred to refuse concurrence. The Arch- 
bisliop of Canterbury and many of the prelates expressed their 
satisfaction and approbation of the queen's measures, and many 
of the most powerful barons, jealous of Despencer's power, 
were ready to fly to arms, and there needed but the appearance 
of the queen and prince, with such a body of foreign troops 
as might protect her against immediate violence, to turn all 
this tempest, so artfully prepared, against the unhappy Ed- 
M'ard. Charles, though he gave countenance and assistance to 
the faction, was ashamed openly to support the queen and 
prince against the authority of a husband and father, and Isa- 
bella was ol)liged to court the alliance of some other foreign 
potentate, from whose dominion she might set out on her in- 



1326-27.] EDWARD II. 255 

tended invasion. For this purpose she affianced young Ed- 
ward, whose tender age (fourteen) made him incapable of judg- 
ing the consequences, with Philippa, daughter of the Count of 
llainauk, and having, by the open assistance of this prince, 
enhsted in her service three thousand men, she set sail from 
the harbor of Dort, and landed safely at Orwell, on the coast 
of Suffolk, on September 24, 1326, where she was met by the 
Earls of Kent, Korfolk, Leicester, and other leading barons and 
their followers. To render her cause more acceptable, Isabella 
declared that the sole piu'pose of her enterprise was to free the 
king and kingdom from the tyranny of the Despencers and 
the Chancellor Baldoc, their creature. 

Edward, after trying in vain to rouse the citizens of London 
to some sense of duty, departed for the west, where he hoped 
to meet with greater success. He had scarcely left the city 
when the populace broke out against him and his ministers ; 
they plundered and murdered all who were obnoxious to them, 
and having made themselves masters of the Tower, entered 
into a formal association to put to death every one who should 
oppose the enterprise of the queen and prince. A like spirit 
was soon conmnmicated to all parts of the kingdom. Edward 
M^as hotly pursued to Bristol, then to Wales, and being liard 
pressed took ship for Ireland, but from stress of weather re- 
turned and endeavored to conceal himself in the Welsh moun- 
tains, but was soon discovered and given up to the Earl of 
Leicester, who sent him as prisoner to Kenihvorth Castle. 
Despencer also fell into the hands of his enemies and was ex- 
ecuted. 

The queen, to avail herself of the prevailing delusion, sum- 
moned a parliament m the king's name at Westminster, where, 
with the power of her army and the authority of her partisans, 
a charge was drawn up against the king. 

" He was accused of incapacity for government ; of wasting 
his time in idle amusements ; of neglecting public business ; of 
being swayed by evil councillors ; of having lost, by his miscon- 
duct, the kingdom of Scotland and part of Guienne, and even, 
to swell the charge, the death of some barons and inqu'isonment 
of some prelates, convicted of treason, were laid to his account." 



156 EDWARD II. [1327. 

It was in vain to appeal to either law or reason, and the deposi- 
tion of the king, witliout any appearing opposition, was voted 
by Parliament on January 13, 1327, and young Edward was 
placed on tlie throne. A deputation was sent to Edward at 
Kenihvorth, to require his resignation, which menaces of terror 
soon extorted from him. 

It was impossible to keep the queen's true character and con- 
duct long from the people. Here a M'ife at first deserted, next' 
invaded, and then dethroned her husband, and liad made her 
son an instrument in this unnatural treatment of his father ; 
had by lying pretences seduced the nation into a rebellion 
against their sovereign ; had pushed them into violence, and 
had dishonored them. All those circumstances were so odious 
in themselves, and formed such a complicated mass of guilt, that 
the least reflection answered to open men's eyes, and make them 
detest themselves for the part they had taken. 

Then suspicions soon arose of Isabella's criminal connection 
with Mortimer, and proofs daily broke out of this part of her 
guilt, which increased the general abhorrence against her ; and 
her hypocrisy in publicly bewailing with tears the king's un- 
happy fate, was not able to deceive even the most stupid of her 
adherents. In proportion as the cpieen became an oljject of 
puljlic hatred, the dethroned monarch was regarded with pity, 
friendship, and veneration, and men became sensible that all 
hi§ misconduct had been owing to the unavoidable weakness, 
rather than the depravity of his character. 

He was now removed fi-om the custody of the Earl of Leices- 
ter by Mortimer's order, and delivered over to Lords Berkley, 
Mantravers, and Gourney, who Avere entrusted alternately, each 
for a month, with the charge of guarding him. AYliile he was 
in the custody of Berkley he was treated with tlie kindness due 
his rank, but when the turn of Mantravers and Gourney came, 
every species of indignity was practised against him, and at last 
finding the efforts too slow for laying liim in his grave, Mor- 
timer sent secret orders to dispatch him, which M'as done in the 
most cruel manner by thrusting a red-hot iron up his fundament, 
which they inserted through a hoi-n, thus preventing the appear- 
ance of any outward marks of violence. 



1327.] EDWARD III. 157 

Both tlie reign and character of Edward are generally misun- 
derstood. Unlike his father, he readily pardoned offenders, sneh 
as he wonld not have suffered to live, and he seems never to 
have been guilty of the extortions and oppressions that marked 
the preceding reign. All the charges that his disaffected nobles 
brought against him only amount to this — that he did not keep 
over them the stern control to Mdiieh they had been accustomed, 
and that he was profuse in rewarding the few whom he felt he 
could trust. He died in the forty-third year of his age and the 
twentieth of his reign. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Robert I. (Bruce) ; 
France : Philip IV., Louis X., Philip Y. (the Tall), Charles lY. 
(the Fair); Emperors of the West: Albert I., Henry YIL, 
Louis lY. 

Edward III. — A.D. 1327-1377. 

Born at Windsor, November 13, 1313. 

Proclaimed king, January 25, 1327. 

Crowned, February 1, 1328. 

Married, January 24, 1329, Philippa, daughter of William, Count of Hainault. 

Issue : 
Edward, the Black Prince, married his cousin, Joan, daughter of the Earl of 

Kent. Issue : 
Edward. 

E,ichard,^afterward Richard II. 
William, died young. 

Lionel, Duke of Clarence, married Elizabeth de Burg. 
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, married Blanche Plantagenefc. 
' Edmund, Earl of Cambridge. 
Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. 
Isabel. 
Joan. 
Blanche. 
Mary. 
Margaret. 

Edward was the eldest son of Edward II. by his wife Isa- 
bella of France ; was born at Windsor, i^ovember 13, 1312 ; 
raised to the throne by Parliament January 25, 1327. It also 
app'ointed a Council of Regency to exercise the royal power, 
consisting of twelve — five prelates and seven noblemen — • 
and the Earl of Lancaster was appointed guardian and protec- 



158 EDWARD III. [1327. 

tor of the king's person during liis minority, but the qneen- 
mother and Roger Mortimer exercised control over him. 

Although disturbances were expected within the kingdom 
from the weakness of the late reign, and the licentionsness of 
the barons, thev arose from an invasion of a foreign enemy. 

Robert Bruce, King of the Scots, declining in years and 
health, but retaining all the martial spirit which had raised his 
nation from the lowest ebb of fortune, deemed the present op- 
portunity favorable for invading England, and, with an army 
of twenty-five thousand men, attacked the northern counties. 

Yonng Edward, burning with a passion for military fame 
appeared at the liead of an army of sixty thousand men, and 
marched to meet the enemy, who had already advanced as far 
as Durham, laying everything waste around them. But from 
the celerity of their movements, they l>eing lightly encumbered, 
he was not al^le to overtake them, and having to march over a 
devastated country, he could not get supplies for his army, so 
was compelled to retrace his steps for a time. After remaining 
inactive for a few days, Edward heard the Scots had formed a 
new encampment on the southern bank of the Ware, as if they 
intended to await a battle. They had chosen their ground 
with snch judgment that the English saw it would be dangerous 
to attack them. After a few days they decamped, marching 
farther np the river, but still keeping the advantage of position. 

While the armies lay in this position an incident happened 
which nearly proved fatal to the young king. Earl Douglass, 
who had snrveyed the situation of the English camp, entered it 
secretly at night with a body of two hundred picked men, and 
advanced to the king's tent, for the pnrpose of killing oi* 
making him prisoner, in the midst of his own army, but some 
of Edward's attendants awaking at the critical moment resisted 
their attack. His chaplain and chaml)erlain sacrificed their 
lives for his safetj^. The king, after making a gallant defence, 
escaped in the dark, and Douglass, having lost a large number 
of his followers, M^as glad to make a hasty retreat with the re- 
niainder. 

Soon after the Scotch army decamped, without noise, in the 
dead of night, and having thus got the start of the English, ar- 



1328-30.] EDWARD III. I59 

rived safe in their own conntiy. Edward, liig'hly incensed at 
his disappointment, soon after marched sonth again. 

In the year 1328, Mortimer entered into a negotiation with 
Robert Bruce for a peace between the two countries, proposing 
that a marriage should be contracted between Joan, sister of 
Edward, and David, the son and lieir of Hobert ; tliat the King 
of Scotland should relinquish all homage paid to England ; and 
that England should acknowledge Robert as an independent 
sovereign of Scotland. In return for these advantages Robert 
stipulated to pay thirty thousand marks to England. This 
treaty was ratified by Parliament. 

The princes of the blood, the Earls of Kent, IS'orfolk, and 
Lancaster, were united in their councils, and Mortimer enter- 
tained great suspicions of their designs against him. In sum- 
moning them to Parliament, he strictly prohibited them, in the 
king's name, from coming attended by an armed force, an il- 
legal, but usual practice in that age. 

The three earls, as they approached to the place appointed 
for the meeting of Parliament, found that though they them- 
selves, in obedience to the king's command, had brought only 
their usual retinue with them, Mortimer and his party were 
attended by all their followers in arms. Apprehending designs 
upon their persons, they retreated, assembled their retainers, 
and were returning with an army to take vengeance on Mor- 
timer, but becoming frightened, gave up the enteiprise, and 
made their submission to him. Mortimer was now determined 
to be revenged, and in time, through his emissaries, induced the 
Earl of Kent to enter into a conspiracy against the king, having 
first made him believe his brotlier, King Edward, was still alive 
and detained in some secret prison. Kent, whose remorse for 
the part he had acted in the dethronement inclined him to give 
credit to this intelligence, readily entered into a conspiracy to 
restore him to liberty, and to reinstate him on the throne. 

After this harmless conspiracy was allowed to go a_ certain 
length, the earl was seized by Mortimer's order, was accused 
before Parliament, and condemned, by those slavish barons, to 
lose his life and fortune. The queen and Mortimer, apprehen- 
sive of young Edward's lenity, hurried on the execution, and he 



IQQ EDWARD III. [1330-33. 

was beheaded the next day, March 9, 1330, and Mortimer's son 
Geoffrey seized liis estates. 

It was impossible that siieh abuses could long escape the ob- 
servation of a prince endowed with so much spirit and judg- 
ment as young Edward, who being now in the eighteenth year 
of his age, and feeling himself capable of goveruing, objected to- 
being held in fetters by so insolent a minister ; but it required 
secrecy and caution to subvert his designs and bring him to 
justice. Edward communicated his wishes to Lord Montacute, 
who engaged six others to enter into his views. The Castle of 
Nottingham was chosen for the scene of the enterprise. As the 
queen-dowager and Mortimer lodged there, and the governor, 
Sir William Eland, was taken into the conspiracy, the associates 
were admitted through a subterranean passage at night, and 
Mortimer, without having it in his power to make an}^ resist- 
ance, was seized in a chamber adjoining the c|ueen's. A Parlia- 
ment was immediately called for his condemnation. lie was 
accused of having usurped regal power ; of having procm'ed the 
death of the late king ; of having deceived the Earl of Kent 
into a conspiracy, and then caused ^liis death; of havhig ob- 
tained exorbitant grants of the royal demesnes ; of having dis- 
sipated the public treasury, and nuany other misdemeanors, all 
of which he was found guilty of and hanged at Elmes on 
November 20, 1330. 

Edward now assumed the i-eins of government and applied 
himself, with industry and judgment, to redress all those griev- 
ances which had proceeded either from want of authority in the 
crown, or the late abuses of it. lie issued writs to the judges, 
enjoining them to administer justice, without regard to arbitrary 
orders from the ministers, and made tlie barons give their solemn 
promise, in Parliament, that they -would break off all connection 
with the bands of robbers and murderers so long encouraged by 
them. 

In proportion as the government acquired authority at home, 
it became formidable to the neighboring nations, and the ambi- 
tious spirit of Edward soon found an opportunity of exerting 
itself. The wise and valiant Robert Bruce was dead, and had 
left David, his son, a minor under the guardianship of the Earl 



1332-37.] EDWARD III. IQI 

of Murray. Ent Edward gave secret assistance and encourage- 
ment to some discontented nobles who, with Edward Baliol, liad 
raised a body of men to invade that country, in 1332, wlien they 
succeeded in placing lialiol on the throne. But the following 
year, either imprudence or necessity made him dismiss the 
greater part of his English followers, when he was suddenly 
attacked by Sir Archibald Douglass and other chieftains, and 
routed, his brother John killed, and he escaped into England in 
a miserable condition. He thus lost his kingdom by a revolu- 
tion as sudden as that by which he had acquired it. 

Edward, ambitious of recovering the important concessions 
made by Mortimer to Bruce during his n^inority, threw off all 
scruples, and determined to reinstate Baliol, and Parliament 
consented to the war. 

The two armies met at Ilalidon on July 19, 1333. The 
Scotch wei'e soon thrown into disorder, and on the fall of Doug- 
lass, their general, were totally routed; the whole army fled in 
confusion, and the English gave little cpiarter; all the highest 
nobles v/ere either slain or taken prisoners. 

After this fatal blow, the Scotch had no other recourse than 
instant submission, and Edward, leaving a consideraljle force 
with Baliol, returned to England. When Charles lY. of France 
died without male issue, Edward claimed the throne in right of 
his mother Isabella, but by a previous enactment it had been 
declared that all females were forever incapable of succeeding 
to the crown of France, and Philip de Valois was recognized 
heir. Still, Edward declared that although his mother was, on 
account of her sex, incapable of succeeding, he himself, who in- 
herited through hci", was liable to no such objection, and could 
claim by the right of propinquity ; and although he obeyed 
the summons of Philip to cross over to France and do homage 
to him for his French possessions, it finally resulted in a long 
and tedious war. 

In the year 1337, Edward made preparations for war, and 
.commenced by proposing the subject to his father-in-law, the 
Count of Elainault ; and having gained him in his interests, em- 
ployed his good offices in drawing the other sovereigns of the 
neighborhood into his alliance, who could all supply numbers of 
11 



IQ2 EDWARD IIL [1338. 

warlike troops, and nothing was wanting to make the force com- 
plete, but the accession of Flanders, which Edward secured by 
unusual means. 

When all was ready, Edward passed over to that country 
(1338) taking his queen and her court with him. The names 
of two of his sons, Lionel of Antwerp, and John of Gaunt, show 
that they were born there. 

At that time the leader of the Flemings was James d'Arte- 
ville, a brewer in Ghent, wdio governed with a more absolute 
sway than ever had been assumed by any of their lawful sove- 
reigns. He placed and displaced magistrates at pleasure ; he 
was accompanied with a guard, who, on the least signal from 
him, instantly assassinated any man that happened to fall 
under his displeasure. 

To gain D'Arteville's interest Edward received a grant from 
his Parliament of twenty thousand sacks of wool to strengthen 
his hands and to use in gaining the Fleming over to his cause. 
And he, the most haughty and aspiring prince of the age, never 
courted an ally with so nuich assiduity and so many submis- 
sions as he employed toward this seditious and criminal trades- 
man. 

D'Arteville, proud of these ad\-ances from the king of Eng- 
land, and glad to continue connections M'ith such good cus- 
tomers, who furnished them material for their factories, the 
chief source of their opulence, readily embraced Edward's cause 
and invited him over to the Low Gountries. 

To satisfy the German princes for their alliance with him, 
and to show some legal authority, he applied to Lewis of Ba- 
varia, then emperor, and received the appointment from him of 
Yicar of the Empire. 

The Flemings,, who were vassals of France, pretended like 
scruples with regard to the invasion of their liege lord, and 
Edward, l)y the advice of DWrteville, assumed the title of 
King of France, and in virtue of this right, claimed their as- 
sistance for dethroning Philip de Yalois, the usurper of his 
kingdom. 

Philip made great preparations against the English, and re- 
ceived the allianfie of the Pope, the King of Navarre, the Duke 



1339-41] EDWARD III. IQg 

of Brittany, the King of Bohemia, and the Dukes of Lorraine 
and Austria. 

In tlie year 1339 Edward commenced the war by entering 
the enemy's country, and encamped at Vironfosse with an 
army of fifty tliousand men, composed ahnost entirely of 
foreigners. He ravaged the north of France, but liis Flemisli 
allies refused to leave their own country, and the Germans 
quitted his army as soon as his treasure was exhausted. He 
was therefore obliged to retire into Flanders, disband his army, 
and shortly after returned to England to collect a fresh one. 

In the meantime a powerful French fleet had put to sea and 
captured several large English ships, and then stationed them- 
selves in the harbor of Sluys. Edward, when about to i-eturn 
to Flanders, heard of the loss of Ins ships, among which was 
one called the " Christopher," in which he had before ci'ossed 
the sea, and he considered it a point of honor to retake it. Ac- 
cordingly, though his fleet was much, the smallest, he sailed from 
Ipswich, and on June 24, 1340, came up with the eneiny. 

Ill the very front of the line he found the " Christopher " 
filled with Genoese crossbow men, as well as several other Eng- 
lish prizes, the sight of which excited him, his nobles, and liks 
men almost to madness, and they all vowed to capture them or 
perish. The French ships were chained together, but by stand- 
ing a short distance out to sea, the English induced them to 
separate, and then turning on them, a desperate hand-to-hand 
fight ensued, which lasted all night, and ended in the total de- 
feat of the French, with terrible slaughter. 

This was the greatest overthrow the French navy had received 
since the time of King John, and so decisive was it that it took 
no fui'ther part in the war for full thirty years, and then only 
because the French had succeeded in obtaining aid from Spain. 

After this victoiy Edward again ravaged the French border, 
and also defied the king to single combat, styling him only 
Philip de Valois ; but Philip declined to notice the challenge, 
and a truce for a year followed, which ^vas afterward prolonged 
for another year. 

But ere this second period had expired, the Duke of Brittany 
died, and two claimants for the duchy arose (1341). One was 



164 EDWARD III. . [1341-46. 

Charles of Blois, the nephew of tlie King of Franee, and the 
other was John de Monfort, the late duke's half-Lrother. 

The King of France supported Charles, and Edward took 
part with John. 

x\t first Charles was successful, and Jane, the wife of his 
rival, was besieged by him in the castle of 11 eunnebon. She 
was almost reduced to despair, when she was relieved by a body 
of English troops, led by Sir Walter Manny. Edward followed 
soon after, but another truce was agreed on. 

This was badly kept by the French, and resulted in war 
again. 

In 131:6, Edward, with his son, the Black Prince, then in 
the fifteenth year of his age, again invaded France. He em- 
barked at Southampton, and was accompanied by a fleet of one 
thousand sail of all sizes. He carried with liim the chief no- 
bility of England, and after a long and tedious voyage, landed 
at La Hogue, in Normandy, on July 12th. After destroying 
all the ships in that harbor, as well as Barflenr and Cherbourg, 
he spread his army over the whole country, and gave them un- 
bounded license of burning and plundering every place they 
became masters of. Caen fell to his arms, and the citizens 
were massacred without distinction of age, sex, or condition, 
the city plundered, and the valuables sent to England. 

He next moved on to Bouen in hopes of treating that city 
in the same manner, but found the bridge over the Seine 
broken down, and that the King of France had arrived there 
Avith his army. He marched along the banks of that river 
toward Paris, destroying the whole country, towns and villages, 
as he went ; some of his light troops carried their ravages even 
to the gates of Paris. Edward, now fearing that he might be 
surrounded by the French ai"my, retired to Flanders, where he 
was pursued by Philip, connnanding an army of one hundi'ed 
thousand men, but fortunately escaped by finding a ford across 
the Somme. Seeiniz; his danger in continuing the march over 
the Plains of Picardy, he determined to meet the enemy. He 
therefore chose his ground with advantage, near the village of 
Cre9y, and disposed his troops in excellent order. On August 
25, 1346, the two armies met, and the French were defeated 



1346-47.] EDWARD III. 1(55 

witli great slangliter. Tlie Kings of Majorca and Bohemia 
were slain, together witli all their attendants. Tlie crest of the 
latter was three ostrich feathers, and his motto two German 
words : " Ich dien," " I serve," which the Black Prince, then 
Prince of Wales, adopted in memory of this great victory, and 
has ever since been co,ntinued by every sncceeding Prince of 
Wales to the present day. 

A few months after Cre9y, a Scotch army, which had in- 
vaded the northern comities of England, was ronted at Neville's 
Cross, and its king, David, taken prisoner, while the with- 
drawal of the French from the Garonne left England miop- 
posecl in Gnienne and Poiton. 

Edward's aim, however, was not to conqner France, but sim- 
ply to save England's commerce, by secnring the mastery of 
the Chaimel. Calais was the great pirate haven ; in one 
year alone twenty-two privateers had sailed from its port, while 
its captnre promised the king an easy base of commnnication 
with Flanders, and of operations against France. The siege 
had lasted a year, and it was not till Philip failed to relieve it 
that the town was starved into a surrender. 

Mercy was granted to the garrison and the people on condi- 
tion that six of the citizens gave themselves unconditionally 
into the king's hands. 

" On them," said Edward, with a burst of bitter hatred, " I 
will do my will." When the king's demand was told the peo- 
ple they all began to weep and cry aloud for pity. Then stood 
up the wealthiest burgess of the town, Eustace de St. Pierre, 
and spake thus : " My masters, great grief and mishap it 
were for all to leave such a people as this is, to die from famine 
or otherwise ; and great charity and grace would he win from 
our Lord, who could defend them from dying. For me, I have 
great hope in the Lord, that if I can save this people by my 
death, I shall have pardon for my faults; wherefore, I will be 
the iirst of the six, and, of my own M'ill, put myself barefoot in 
my shirt, and, with a halter ronnd my neck, give myself to the 
mercy of King tdward." The list of devoted men was soon 
made up, and the six victims were led before the king, who 
ordered their heads to be cut off. All his knights and lords 



IQQ EDWARD III. [1347-50. 

prayed liiin with tears to liave pity on them, lint he would not 
hear, and, with wrath, said : '' Ilokl your peace, it shall be none 
otherwise ; call the headsman. They of Calais have made so 
many of my men die that they must die themselves ! " 

Then the noble Queen of England threw herself upon her 
knees before the king, and said : " Ah, gentle Sire, from the 
day I passed over sea in great peril, as you know, I have asked 
for nothing ; now pray I and beseech you, with folded hands, 
for tlie love of our Lady's Son, to have mercy npon them." 
Tlien his heart began to soften, and he said, " Lady, I had 
rather you had been otherwhere ; you pray so tendeiiy that I 
dare not refuse you. I give them to you.'' 

The inhabitants of Calais were removed, and the place was 
peopled by the English ; three years afterward the French 
attempted to regain it by treachery, but were foiled by the 
sudden arrival of the king, when they gave up the contest as 
ho})eiess, and, though sometimes threatened, it was never seri- 
ously assailed by them, until the Duke of Guise captui-ed it, in 
the reign of Queen Mary, two hundred years after. 

Edward was now " King of the Sea," but peace with France 
was as far off as ever. Even the truce which had for eight 
years been forced on both countries by sheer exliaustion, be- 
came at last impossible. 

Edward threw three armies at once on the coast of France, 
but the campaign proved a fruitless one. The Black Prince 
alone won a distinguished success. 

Northern and Central France had by tliis time fallen into 
utter ruin ; the royal treasury was empty, the fortresses unoccu- 
pied, the troops disbanded for want of pay, tiie comitry swept 
by bandits ; only the South remained at peace, and the young 
prince led his army up the Garonne, into M'hat was before one 
of the fat countries of the world, and they robbed and destroyed 
everything. AVitli the same aim of plunder, he started the next 
year for the Loire, but the assembling of a French army under 
John, who had succeeded Philip of Yalois on the throne, forced 
him to retreat. As he approached Poictiers, however, he found 
the French, who now numbered sixty thousand men, in his 
path. 



1356-59.] EDWARD III. 1(57 

Tlie prince at once took a strong position in tlie fields of 
Manpertius ; his force consisted of only eight thousand men, 
and the danger was great enough to force him to offer the sur- 
render of his prisoners, and an oath not to fight against France 
for seven years, in exchange for a free retreat. The terms were 
rejected, and three hundred French knights charged up a nar- 
row lane ; it was soon choked with men and horses ; while the 
front ranks of the advancing army fell back before the galling 
fire of arrows from the hedgerows, in the moment of confusion, 
a body of English horsemen, posted on a liill to the right, 
charged suddenly on the French flank, and the prince seized 
the opportunity to fall bodily on their front. The English 
archers completed the disorder produced by this sudden attack. 
The French king was taken prisoner, fighting desperately, and 
by noon his army poured back in utter rout to the gates of 
Poictiers. Eight tliousand of their number had fallen on the 
the field, three thousand in the flight, and two thousand men- 
at-arms, with a crowd of nobles, were taken prisoners. 

The Black Prince conducted his prisoner, John, King of 
France, to England. They landed at Southampton on May 15, 
. 1357, and were met by a large number of people of every rank. 
They journeyed to London, and, while passing through the 
streets of tliat city, the royal prisoner was clad in royal apparel, 
mounted on a white steed- 
He was presented to Edward, who advanced to meet him, 
and he was received with the same courtesy as if he had been 
a neighboring potentate paying a friendly visit. 

Edward first instituted the Order of the Garter to promote a 
spirit of emulation and obedience, to consist of the sovereign 
and twenty-five knights. The number has never been enlarged, 
except for foreign sovereigns and members of tlie royal family. 
Edward, in his desire to shift from his shoulders the respon- 
sibility of the war with France, referred to the Commons for 
counsel on the subject, which they declined giving, and referred 
him to the great and wise persons of his council. "Whatever 
they advise we will assent to, and hold it firmly established," 
they said. 

Edward again invaded France, November i, 1359, with an 



168 EDWARD III. [1359-64. 

army of one hundred tliousand men ; and liaving a strong 
desire of being crowned king of France at Rheinis, the usual 
jolace where the coronation was performed, he laid siege to that 
city for six weeks M'ithont success. lie then laid waste the 
Provhice of Champagne, but the Duke of JJurgundj saved his 
province by the payment of one hundred tliousand nobles ; 
other places saved themselves in a like manner, while others 
suffered. 

On May 8, 1300, a peace was concluded at Bretigni, in which 
it was stipulated that King John should be restored to liberty, 
and should pay tli_ree million crowns of gold as ransom, to be 
discharged in different payments; that Edward should forever 
renounce all claim to the crown of Fi-ance and to the Provinces 
of Kormandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou, possessed by his 
ancestors, and should receive in exchange the Provinces of 
Poitou Xaintonge, L'Agenois Perigord, and other districts, to- 
gether with Guisnes, Calais, and Montreuil ; that the full sove- 
reignty of all these provinces sliould be vested in the crown of 
England, and that France should renounce all title, homage, or 
appeal from them. 

In consequence of this treaty the King of France was brought 
over to Calais, whither Edward soon after repaired, and both 
princes solenmly ratified the treaty. John left for Boulogne ; 
Edwai'd accompanied him a mile on his journey, and the two 
kings parted with sentiments of regard. 

In 13(51 King John visited England, on the business of the 
treaty, where he soon after sickened and died, on April 8tli of 
that year; he was succeeded by the Dauphin Charles. 

Edward was now in his declining years, and the Prince of 
Wales in delicate health. Charles, taking advantage of these 
circumstances, summoned the prince to appear at his court at 
Paris, and there justify his conduct toward his vassals in Gui- 
enne. The prince replied that he would come to Paris, but it 
should be at the head of sixty tliousand men. Unfortunately 
the prince was, from illness, unable to prosecute the war. The 
English armies at first, under Sir Kobert Knolles and the 
Duke of Lancaster, were successful, but were afterward so 
Iiarassed that they had to retire, and Edward eventually, by the 



1369-77.] EDWARD III. iQg 

necessity of his affairs, had to conchide a truce with the enemy, 
after ahnost all his ancient possessions were ravished from him, 
except Bordeaux and Bayonne, and all his conquests except 
Calais. 

The decline of the king's life was exposed to many mortifi- 
cations ; besides seeing the loss of his foreign dominions, he 
felt the decay of his authority at home. This prince, who, 
during the vigor of his youth and age, had been chiefly occu- 
pied in war and ambition, began, at an unseasonable period, 
to indulge himself in pleasure, and now, being a widower, had 
attached himself to a lady, Alice Pierce, who acquired great 
power over him, and to satisfy the Parliament he had to put 
her away from court. The indolence naturally attending old 
age made him, in a great measure, resign the administration into 
the hands of his son, the Duke of Lancaster, who, as he was 
not popular, weakened the affection the people bore the person 
and government of the king. 

Men carried their jealousies very far against the Duke, and 
as they saw, with much regret, the death of the Prince of 
"Wales every day approaching, they apprehended lest the suc- 
cession of his soil Pichard, now a minor, should be defeated by 
the intrigues, of Lancaster, and by the weak indulgence of the 
old king. 

But Edward, in order to satisfy both the people and the 
prince on this head, declared, in Parliament, his grandson 
Pichard heir and successor to the crown, and thereby cut off 
all the hopes of the Duke of Lancaster. 

Edward, Prince of Wales, after a lingering illness, died June 
8, loTO, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving an eminent 
and illustrious character, from his early youth until the day he 
expired, unstained by any blemish. 

The king survived him only a year, and England was at once 
deprived of both these princes, its chief ornament and sup- 
port. 

Edward built Windsor Castle, and abolished the use of the" 
Erench language in public deeds and pleadings in courts of law. 

lie died June 21, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, 
and the fifty-first of his reign, lie married Philippa of llai- 



170 RICHARD n. [1377. 

iiaiilt in 1328 ; hj lier he had a numerous family, lie was 
succeeded by his grandson, Richard 11. 

Coi^TEMPORARY RuLERs. — Scotlaud : Robert I., David II., 
Robert II. ; France : Charles IV., Philip YI., John, Charles 
Y. ; Emperors of the West : Louis IV., Charles TV. 

Richard II. — A.D. 1377-1399. 

Born at Bordeaux, April 3, 1366. 

Crowned, July 16, 1377. 

Married, first, Ann, daughter of the Emperor Charles IV. ; second, Isabel, 

daughter of Charles VI. of France. No issue by either marriage. 
Deposed, September 30, 1899. 
Murdered, Febrimry 14, 1400. 

Richard, son of Edward, Prince of AVales (the Plack Pi-ince), 
and Joan^iiis wife, daughter of his uncle, the Earl of Kent, 
was Iwrn at Bordeaux, France, on April 3, 13G(). He was pre- 
sented to Parliament in 1370 by his grandfathe]*, the king, as 
his heir and successor ; was created Prince of Wales on the 
death of his father ; ascended the throne June 21, 1377, in the 
eleventh year of his age, and was crowned at Westminster 
July 16th following. 

Although Edward had fixed the succession to the throne, he 
had taken no care to establish a form of government during the 
minority of the yoimg king ; but Parliament supplied the de- 
fect by the appointment of twelve nobles to form a council, 
from which his uncles were excluded. The government, how- 
ever, Avas controlled by one of them, John of Gaunt, Duke of 
Lancaster. 

Edward had left his grandson involved in many dangerous 
wars. The pretensions of the Duke of Lancaster to the crown 
of Castile, in right of his wife, Ijrought on trouble between 
England and the Peninsula. 

Scotland, whose throne was now filled l)y Robert Stuart, 
nephew to David Bruce, maintained such close connection yvith 
France, that war with one crown almost inevitably produced 
hostilities with the other. 

Meanwhile the war with France was carried on in a languish- 
ing manner, and produced no good result. 



1379-81. ] RICHARD II. 171 

Tlic expenses of these armaments and the usual want of 
economy attending a minority, greatly ejchausted the treasury, 
and obliged Parliament to impose a new and unusual tax, which 
was rigorously collected ; but the manner of doing.so was odious 
to the people, and resistance was the consequence. At Dart- 
ford, one Wattse Tyler struck dead a tax-gatherer who had 
insulted his daughter, and was made leader of the insurgents, 
and hence that popular rising is known as Wat Tyler's rebel- 
lion. The insurrection spread over nine counties, and partook 
of the character of the Jaccpierie that had occurred in France 
twenty-three years previously. They marched to London one 
hundred thousand strong, and assenibled on Blackheath, June 
12, 13S1. The city of London was entered, the Tower seized, 
and the Archbishop of Canterbury, tlie Treasurer, and several 
other persons of eminence were put to death. There 'Was some 
plundering, and the palace of the Duke of Lancaster was de- 
stroyed. 

Their early demands made upon the king were considered 
reasonable, such as the abolition of slavery, freedom of com- 
merce in market towns, Mdthont toll or impost, fixed rent on 
lands, and a general pardon. These requests, which though ex- 
tremely reasijuable in themselves, the nation was not suflBciently 
prepared to receive, but they were, however, complied with, and 
this body of insurgents dispersed. 

During this transaction another body of the rebels had broken 
into the Tower. The king, passing through Smithfield slenderly 
guarded, met Wat. Tyler at the head of these rioters, and en- 
tered into a conference with him. Tyler, having ordered his 
conq^anions to retire until he should give them a signal, after 
which they were to murder all the company except the king, 
whom they were to keep prisoner, joined the royal retinue, and 
there behaved so arrogantly to the king that he was slain by Sir 
William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London. 

Tlie rioters, seeing their leader slain, prepared to revenge his 
death, when Richard, with extraordinary presence of mind, ad- 
vanced alone toward the enraged multitude. lie addressed 
them as his good people, asked them if they were angry at 
having lost their leader, saying, " I am your king ; I will be 



172 EICHARD II. [1382-86. 

your leader." The i-ebels, overawed l^y liis presence, implicitly 
followed him. He led them into the fields to prevent disorder, 
where he was joined by Sir Robert Knolles and a body of 
veteran soldiers, whom he would not allow to harm the rioters, 
but after granting them the same privileges as the former band, 
dismissed them. Soon after, the nobility, hearing of the king's 
danger, in which they were all involved, flocked to London 
with their adherents, and Kichard soon found himself at the 
head of forty thousand men. The I'ebels had then to submit, 
their charters and pardons were revoked by Parliament, the 
common people were reduced to the same slavish condition, and 
several of the ringleaders were severely punished. 

Richard married Anne of Bohemia, daughter of the Em- 
peror Charles IV., January 14, 13S2. 

He entered Scotland with an army of sixty thousand men. 
The Scots did not pretend to make resistance against so great a 
force, but abandoned their country to be pillaged and destroyed 
by the enemy ; but they knew how to compensate their losses 
by retaliating. 

Accordingly^, as Richard enteretl Scotlaiid by Ber\vick and 
the east coast, the Scots, to the number of thirty thousand, at- 
tended by some French horsemen, entered the borders of Eng- 
land by the west, and carrying their ravages through Cumber- 
land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire, collected a rich booty, and 
then returned quietly to their own country. Richard in the 
meantime advanced towai'cl Edinburgh, destroying all the towns 
and villages in his way, and then returned to England without 
effecting anything in particular. 

The Dake of Lancaster being absent in Spain in prosecution 
of his vain claim to the crown, the Duke of Gloucester, Rich- 
ard's uncle, made himself master of the kingdom. The king 
was induced by bis favorite, the Earl of Oxford, to attempt to 
throw off the yoke, but in the contest Gloucester conquered, 
and, by the assistance of Parliament, a council of fourteen noble- 
men was appointed, loSC) (all of the duke's faction, except the 
Archbishop of York), and the sovereign power was transferred 
to these men for twelve months. 

The king, who had now reached the twenty-first year of his 



1387-89.] RICHARD II. 1^3 

age, was in reality detlironed, and the aristocracy was rendered 
supreme. 

The following year he met, by appointment, the principal 
judges of the land of Nottingham, and proposed certain ques- 
tions to them for their opinion, which, from either the inllu- 
ence of his authority, or of reason, they made no scruple of 
answering in the way he desired. 

They declared the commission was derogatory to the royalty 
and prerogative of the king, that those who procured it, or 
advised the king to consent to it, were punishable with death ; 
and those who compelled him were guilty of treason, and that 
those were equally guilty who should persevere in maintaining 
it, and that the king had the right of dissolving Parliament at 
liis pleasure. The Duke of Gloucester and his adherents soon 
got intelligence of this secret consultation, and on the king's 
arrival in London, assembled their forces at Ilaringay Park 
with a power Richard and his ministers were not able to I'esist. 
The lords of the council then appeared in London with an army 
of forty thousand, and the accused ministers who had advised 
the king were cited to appear before Parliament to answer ; 
they were found guilty of conspiracy, and either executed or 
banished the kingdom, and their estates confiscated, February 
3, 13S8. 

Li less tlian a year, Itichard, who was then in his twenty- 
third year, declared in council, May 3, 1389, that as he had now 
attained the full age that entitled him to govern, l)y his own 
authority, his kingdom and household, he resolved to exercise 
his right of sovereignty, and when no one ventured to contradict 
so reasonable an intention, he deprived the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury of the office of Chancellor, and conferred it on the Bishop 
of Winchester, together with the other members of the coun- 
cil, and even the Duke of Gloucester was removed for a time, 
and the king exercised with moderiition the authority he had 
resumed. 

The Duke of Lancaster had returned from Spain, and coun- 
terbalanced the authority of his younger brother, Gloucester. 
The wars, meanwhile, which Pichard had inherited with his 
crown, still continued, though interrupted by frequent truces, 



l^l^ RICHARD II. [1394-99. 

and were conducted witli little vigor, owing to the weakness of 
all parties. At last the English and French courts began to 
think in earnest of a lasting peace, but found it difficult to 
adjust their different pretensions ; they were content to estab- 
lish a truce, and on May 27, 1394, a twenty-five years' truce 
was agreed on. Shortly afterward his queen, Anne, died. 

Richard discovered a conspiracy to deprive him of the throne, 
of which his uncle Gloucester was the head. lie immediately 
saw that either his own ruin or Gloucester's was inevital)le, 
and resolved by a hasty blow to prevent the accomplishment 
of the design against himself, lie ordered the ari-est of the 
Duke ; hurried him on board ship and had him carried over to 
Calais, where alone he could be safely detained in custody. 
Shortly after, a warrant M'as issued to the governor of that fort- 
ress to bring over the Duke of Gloucester for trial, but that 
oflicer answered that the duke had just died suddenly of apo- 
plexv ; and the general opinion was he had been murdered by 
the king's order, October, 1397. 

Richard married Isabella of France, October, 1396. A quarrel 
took place between the Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk, the 
former better known as Henry of Bolingbroke, and cousin to 
Richard, a duel was the consequence, but the king prevented and 
banished both from the kingdom for a space of ten years. On 
February 3d, the following year, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lan- 
caster, Hereford's father, died, and the banished son desired to 
he put in possession of the estate ; but Richard, fearing to 
strengthen the hands of a man he had already so much offended, 
applied to Parliament and had the estate confiscated to the crown, 
and the banishment made perpetual. In May, 1399, he sailed 
for Ireland, in order to revenge the death of his cousin, the Earl 
of March, the presumptive heir to the crown. The Duke of 
York was left guardian of the kingdom, a place to M'hich his 
birth entitled him, l)ut which he was quite unfitted for, fi-om 
his slender abilities and his natural connection with the Duke 
of Lancaster, who, although banished, had acquired by his con- 
duct and abilities the esteem of the nation. He was also con- 
nected with most of the principal nobility — by blood, alliance, 
or friendship — and as the injury done him by the king might, 



1399.] RICHARD II. 275 

in its consequences, affect all of them, he easily brouglit them, 
by a sense of common interest, to take part in his resentment. 

The people, who found nothing in the king's person which 
they could love or revere, easily transferred to Lancaster that 
attachment which the death of the Duke of Gloucester had left 
without any fixed direction. 

On July 4, 1399, Henry, Duke of Lancaster, with a retinue 
of sixty persons, embarked at jS^antz and landed at Ravenspur, 
in Yorkshire, where he was met by the Earls of jSTorthumber- 
land and Westmoreland. He there took a solemn oath that he 
had no other purpose in this invasion tliaii to recover the Duchy 
of Lancaster, unjustly detained from him, and invited all his 
friends in England, and all lovers of their country, to assist him 
in this reasonable and moderate pi-etension. 

Every place was now in commotion ; the malcontents flew 
to arms ; London showed symptoms of rebellion, and Henry's 
army increasing on every day's march soon amounted to sixty 
thousand combatants. 

The Duke of York assembled an army of forty thousand men, 
but they were entirely destitute of loyalty and zeal to the royal 
cause, and more inclined to Henry's party, and the duke there- 
fore readily hearkened to a message from Henry, who entreated 
him not to oppose a loyal and humble supplicant, in the i-ecov- 
ery of his legal patrimony, and the guardian duke declared pub- 
licly that he would second his nephew in so reasonable a request. 
His army embraced with acclamations the same cause, and the 
Duke of Lancaster, reinforced by them, was now entirely master 
of the kingdom. He hastened to Bristol, where some of the 
king's ministers had thrown themselves, and soon obliged the 
place to surrender. 

The king, hearing of this invasion, hastened over from L-e- 
land, and landed at Milford ILaven wi^h a body of twenty thou- 
sand men, but they soon deserted, leaving only six thousand men 
who followed his standard. 

He immediately fled to the island of Anglesea, with the inten- 
tion to embark either for Ireland or France, and there wait a 
favorable opportunity. 

Henry sent to him the Duke of ISTorthumberland with the 



176 RICHARD II. [1399. 

strongest professions of loyalty and submission ; that nobleman, 
by treachery and false oaths, made himself master of the king's 
person, and carried him prisoner to his enemy at Flint Castle, 
on September 1, 1391). lliehard was conducted to London by 
the Duke of Lancastei-, who was there received with acclama- 
tion by the mutinous populace. 

It is said that the Recorder met him on the road, and in the 
name of the city entreated him, for the public safety, to put 
Kichard to death, with all his adherents, who were prisoners, 
but the duke prudently determined to make many others par- 
ticipate in his guilt before he would proceed to such extremities. 
For this purpose he issued writs of election in the king's name, 
and appointed the immediate meeting of a parliament at West- 
minster. 

Such of the peers as were most devoted to the king, either 
fled or were imprisoned, and no opponents, even among the 
barons, dared to appear against this scene of outrage and vio- 
lence. 

The Duke of Lancaster, sensible that he was now master of 
the situation, began to carry his views to the crown itself, and 
he consulted with his partisans concerning the most proper 
means of effecting his daring purpose. 

He first extorted a resignation from Richard, but as he knew 
this deed would appear the result of force and fear, he deter- 
mined, notwithstanding the danger of the precedent to himself 
and posterity, to have him solemnly deposed by Parliament for 
his pretended tyranny and misconduct, and a charge of thirty- 
three articles was accordingly drawn up and presented to that 
body. 

When the charge against Richard was presented to Parlia- 
ment, one man alone, the Bishop of Carlisle, had the courage 
to appear in defence of his unhappy master, and lie was imme- 
diately arrested by the order of the Duke, and sent a prisoner 
to the Abbey of St. Albans. 

The thirty-three articles were in one meeting voted against 
Richard unanimously, and he was deposed by the suffrages of 
both houses, and by the united voice of Lords and Commons, 
and Henry was placed on the throne September 30, 1399. 



1399.] RICHARD IL 177 

The Earl of ISTorthiirnberland soon after asked, in the House 
of Peers, what advice they would give the king as to the dis- 
posal of Richard, as Henry was resolved to spare his life ; they 
unanimously replied that he should be imprisoned under strict 
guard, in some secret place, and should be deprived of all inter- 
course with any of his friends or partisans. 

The manner or time of his death is unknown, but it is 
thought he was murdered by his guards in Pomfret Castle, 
some time in October, 1399. He died in the thirty-fourth 
year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. He left no 
posterity, either legitimate or illegitimate. 

The reign of Hichard was a remarkable period in the con- 
stitutional history of England ; and still more so in religion 
and literature, from the eminent names of Wycliff, Chaucer, 
and Grower, who were patronized by him. The modern Eng- 
lish language is usually dated from his reign. 

He was succeeded by Henry IV. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Robert H., Robert III. ; 
France : Charles V., Charles VL ; Emperor of the West, 
Charles IV. 

12 




THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 



A.D. 1399-1461. 



The House of Lancaster, or the " Tied Rose," was descended 
from the llonse of Plantagenet, and originated with John of 
Gaunt, fifth son of Edward III. 

Edward had six sons by his queen, PhiHppa of Ilainault. 
His eldest son was Edward, the Black Prince, who died during 
liis fathei-'s lifetime ; he left a son, Kichard, afterward Picliard 
II., who died without issue. 

Edward's third son was Lionel, Duke of Clarence, who was 
first married to Elizabeth de Burgh, daughter and heiress of the 
Earl of Ulster, bj whom he had only one daughter, Philippa, 
who married Ednnmd Mortimer, Earl of March. 

His fourth son was John of Gaunt — so called from the place 
of his birth — who was created Duke of Lancaster Kovember 13, 
1362, and died February 3, 1399. He was succeeded by his 
son, Henry of Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford, who afterward 
illegally possessed the throne. 

The fifth son was Edmund, Duke of York, and founder of 
the house of that name, or of the '' AVhite Pose," and he was 
succeeded by his son Edward, who fell at Agincourt October 



1399.] HENRY IV. 179 

2-1, 1415, whose successor was his nephew Richard, son and 
heir of Anne Mortimer, great-granddaughter of Lionel, Duke of 
Charence, Edward's third son. It was bj virtue of this descent 
that tlie House of York alleged its superior i-iglit to that c>f 
Lancaster, which was descended from the fourth son of Edward 
HI. 

Parliament thus set aside the legitimate heir to the throne, 
Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, a former Parliament having 
settled the crown in that line, and in accordance with the re- 
cieved laws of inheritance. 



Henry IV. — A.D. 1399-1413, 

Born at Bolingbroke, 1367. 

Crowned, October 13, 1399. 

Married, first, Lady Mary Bohun, 1380. Issue : 

Henry, Prince of Wales, his successor. 

Thomas, Duke of Clarence. 

John, Duke of Bedford. 

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. 

Blanche, married Duke of Bavaria. 

Philippa, married King of Denmark. 

Henry IV., founder of the royalty of the House of Lancaster, 
was born at Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, April 4, 1367. He was 
eldest son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and grandson 
of Edward HI., hy Blanche, daughter and heiress of Henry Plan- 
tagenet, Duke of Lancaster, great-grandson of Henry HI. His 
first title was Earl of Derby. At the age of fifteen he married 
Mary Boliun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford, who was de- 
scended from Edward I. 

In his youth, Henry delighted in tournaments and adventures. 
In 1390 he went to the assistance of the Teutonic knights, serv- 
ing in Prussia and Lithuania ; lie then went to Bai'bary, retui-n- 
ing to England for a brief season. In July, 1392, he set out 
for Palestine, and travelled by the way of Dantzic, Konigsberg, 
Vienna, Friuli, and Venice, sailing from the last named place 
to Rhodes, whence he returned to England the following year, 
visiting by the way, Venice, Milan, Piedmont, Savoy, and France. 
He was created Duke of Hereford in 1397 by Richard II. 



180 HENRY IV. [1399. 

In 1398 he broii2;lit an accusation of traitorons desig;ns against 
tlie Duke of Norfolk, who denied the charge, and appealed to 
the trial by battle. The arrangements were completed, when 
the king put an end to the contest, banishing both parties from 
the kingdom for the space of ten years. Subsequently, Here- 
ford's term of exile was made for life, when, by his father's 
death, he became Duke of Lancaster, and his estates were seized 
by the crown. 

Henry having been called to the throne by Parliament, on 
September 30, 1390, immediately dissolved Parliament, and, six 
days afterward, called a new one, but, without any election, 
sunnnoned the same members. They were employed in the 
usual task of revei'sing evei-y deed of the op])o.site party. All 
the acts of the last Parliament of Richard, which had been con- 
firmed by their oaths and by a papal bull, were abrogated, and 
all the acts, passed under the Gloucester rule, which had been 
abrogated by Richard, were enacted. The peers who had ac- 
cused Gloucester, Arundel, and Warwick, and who had received 
higher titles for that service, were now degraded. 

The king, however, soon realized that his throne had a very 
precarious foundation, which, from its very nature, was liable to 
be overthrown by every faction of the great, or prejudice of 
the people, lie had a present advantage over his competitor : 
the heir of the House of Mortimer, mIio had been declared in 
Parliament heir to the crown, was a boy of seven years of age ; 
his friends consulted his safety by keeping silence with regard 
to his title. Henry detained him and his younger brother in 
honorable custody at Windsor Castle, but had reason to fear 
that he would ultimately secure the attachment of the people, 
who w^ould then realize the fraud, violence, and injustice by 
which he had been excluded from the throne. 

In his first parliament Henry foresaw the danger attending 
the station he had assumed, and the obstacles he would meet 
with in governing an unruly aristocracy, ahva^'S divided by 
faction, and, at present, inflamed with resentments consecpient 
on such recent convulsions. 

The peers, on their first assembling, broke out into violent 
(piarrels against each other ; forty gauntlets, the pledges of 



1400.] HENRY IV. • 181 

furious battle, were tlirown on the floor of the house by noble- 
men who gave mutual challenges. Charges of falsehood and 
treason resounded from all quarters. The kmg prevented hos- 
tilities, but was unable to lead the adversaries into amicable 
relations. 

It was not long before these disaffections became overt acts. 
The Earls of Rutland, Kent, and Huntingdon, and Lord 
Spencer, who were degraded from their respective titles of 
Albemarle, Surrey, Exeter, and Gloucester, conferred on them 
by Richard, entered into a conspiracy, together with the Earl 
of Salisbury and Lord Lumley, for raising an insurrection and 
seizing the king's pei'son at Windsor. The treachery of Rut- 
land gave warnmg of the danger. The king suddenly with- 
drew to London, and the conspirators, who arrived at Windsor 
with a body of five liundred horse, were foiled in this blow, 
on which all the success of their enterprise depended. 

Henry appeared next day at Ivingston-upon-Thames, at the 
head of twenty thousand men, mostly drawn from the city, and 
the conspirators, nnal)le to resist his power, at once dispersed, 
with the view of raising followers in the several counties respec- 
tively the seat of their interest. But the adherents of the king- 
were hot in their pursuit, and everywhere opposed themselves 
to their progress. 

All the leaders were seized, at different cities, and beheaded, 
and when the cpiartered bodies of these unhappy men were 
brought to London no less than eighteen bishops and thirty- 
two mitred abbots joined tlie populace and met them, with the 
most indecent marks of joy and exultation. But the spectacle 
the most shocking to every one who retained any sentiment of 
either honor or humanity, was when the Earl of Rutland ap- 
peared, carrying on a pole the head of Lord Spencer, his 
brother-in-law, which he presented in triumph to the king, as 
a testimony of his lo3^alty. This infamous man — who was soon 
after Duke of York, by the death of his father, and first prince 
of the blood — had been- instrumental in the murder of his un- 
cle, the Duke of Gloucester ; he then deserted Richard, by 
whom he was trusted ; had conspired against the life of 
Henry, to wdiom he had sworn allegiance ; had betrayed his 



182 ■ HENRY IV. [1401. 

associates, whom lie liad seduced into the conspiracy, and now 
displayed, in the face of the world, these badges of his multi- 
plied dishonor. 

Ilenrj, lealizing that the execution of these conspirators 
luight only seem to give security to his throne, determined not 
to increase those numerous enemies that everywliere surrounded 
him, and finding himself possessed of a throne by so precarious 
a title, determined to court the good-will and assistance of tlie 
clergy, who were now troubled by the Lollards ; and although his 
father, the Duke of Lancaster, had been the greatest patron 
and supporter of Wycliffe, Henry now became the persecutor 
of the reformers. The statute for the burning of heretics was 
2:)assed by Parliament in 1401, and it was not allowed to remain 
a dead letter. William Sautre, rector of St. Osithes, in Lon- 
don, was tried for his opinions, and condenmed by convocation 
at Canterbury. Ilis sentence was ratified by both houses, tlie 
king issued his writ for tlie execution, and he atoned for his 
opinions by the penalty of fire, the first instance of the kind in 
England, and one more horror added to the crimes at that 
time but too familiar to the people. 

An insurrection breaking out in Wales, led by Owen Glen- 
dower, descended from the ancient princes of that country, a 
troublesome and tedious war Avas thereupon kindled, and Glen- 
dower connnitted great ilevastations. Sir Edward Mortimer led 
the retainers of his family against him, but was defeated and 
taken prisoner. At the same time the Earl of March, his 
nephew — although a mere boy — took the field, with his fol- 
lowers, fell also into Glendower's hands, and was carried by 
him into Wales. As Henry dreaded and hated all the family 
of March, he refused the Earl of Northumberland permission 
to treat for his ransom. 

The uncertainty in which Henry's affairs stood in regard to 
France, as well as his troubles at home, tempted the Scots to 
make incursions into England, and Henry, desirous of taking- 
revenge upon them, but afraid of rendering his government un- 
popular, by rerpiiring large supplies, sunnnoned a council of 
the peers at Westminster without the connnons, and laid before 
them the state of affairs. They voluntarily undertook to attend 



1402.] HENRY IV. 1S3 

the king on liis expedition against Scotland, each of them at 
the head of a certain number of retainers. 

Henry conducted tliis armv to Edinburgh, of which he easily 
made himself master, and he there summoned Robert III. to do 
homage to him for his crown. But, finding the Scotch would 
neither submit nor give him battle, he returned in three weeks 
after making this useless bravado, and disbanded his army. 

The following year, 1402, the Earl of Douglas, at the head 
of twelve thousand men, and attended by the first nobility of 
Scotland, made an invasion into England, and committed great 
devastation on the northern counties. On his return home he 
was met by the Percys at Ilomeldon ; a fierce battle ensued, 
the Scotch were entirely routed, and Douglas and most of the 
nobility were taken prisoners. 

When Henry heard of the victory he sent orders to the Earl 
of Xorthumberland not to ■ ransom his prisoners, which that 
nobleman regarded as his riglit by the usages of war, and by 
this policy he gave fresh umbrage to the Percy family. 

The oljligations which Henry owed to Xorthumberland wei-e 
of a kind most likely to produce ingratitude on the one side and 
discontent on the other, and the king naturally became jealous 
of the power that placed him upon the throne. The impatient 
spirit of Harry Percy, and the factious disposition of the Earl 
of AVorcester, a younger brother of Northumberland, inflamed 
the discontent of that nobleman, and the precarious title of 
Ilenr}^ tempted him to seek revenge by overturning the 
throne which he had first estal)lished. He therefore entered 
into a correspondence with Glendower, and made an alliance 
with him. He gave liberty to Douglas, and roused up all his 
partisans to arms, and such was the authority of the great fami- 
lies in those days, that the same men whom he had recently 
conducted against Richard now followed his standard in oppo- 
sition to Henry. Just as the war was ready to break out, 
Northumberland was seized with a sudden illness at Berwick, 
and young Percy, taking command of the troops, marched to- 
ward Shrewsbury, in order to join his forces with those of 
Glendower. 

Fortunately for the king, he had a small army on foot, with 



1S4: HENRY IV. [1403. 

wliicli he liad intended to act against tlie Scotch, and, knowing 
the importance of celerity in all civil wars, he instantly hnrried 
down, that he might give battle to the rebels. lie approached 
Percy near Shrewsbury, before that nobleman was joined by 
Glendower, and the policy of one leader and the impatience of 
the other made them hasten to a general engagement. 

The evening befoi'e the battle Percy sent a manifesto to 
Henry, recapitulating every evil act of his reign, from his land- 
ing at Ravenspur, together M'ith all the promises he had broken, 
and, renouncing his allegiance, boldy defied the king. This 
manifesto was well calculated to inflame the quarrel Ijetween 
the two parties ; the bravery of the two leaders promised an 
obstinate engagement, and the equality of the armies promised 
a great effusion of blood on both sides. 

The battle of Shrewsbury was fought on July 21, 1403. 
Henry exposed his person in the thickest of the fight. His gal- 
lant son signalized liimself in this his first battle, and even 
when badly wounded in the face with an arrow wonkl not quit 
the field, Percy supported the fame which he had acquired in 
many a well-fought field, arid Lord Douglas, his ancient enemy, 
and now his friend, still appeared his rival. Amidst the horror 
and confusion of the day this nobleman performed feats of 
A'alor almost incredible. He seemed determined that Henry 
should that day fall by his hand. He sought him constantly on 
the field. Henry, however, to elude the attacks of the enemy 
upon his person, or to encourage his own men by the belief 
of Ins presence everywhere, had accoutred several captains 
in the royal garb, and the sword of Dongias rendered this 
honor fatal to many. 

But while the armies were contending in this furious man- 
ner, the death of Percy, by an unknown hand, decided tlie 
battle. The Royalists prevailed, and the Earls of Worcester 
and Douglas were taken prisoners. The former was beheaded, 
and the latter treated as a prisoner of war. 

The Earl of Xorthumberland, having recovered from his sick- 
ness, had levied a fresh army, and was on his march to join his 
son, but, hearing of the defeat at Shrewsbury, he dismissed liis 
forces, and came with a small retinue to the king at York. He 



1405-7.] HENRY IV. 1S5 

pretended tliat liis sole intention in arming was to mediate be- 
tween tlie parties. Ilenrj thought proper to accept the apology, 
and granted him a pardon for his offence. The other rebels 
were also treated with leniency, except the chief authors of the 
insurrection. 

The Earl of Northumberland, though he had been pardoned, 
knew that he never would be trusted, and in 1405 formed a 
coalition with the Earl of Nottingham, son of the Duke of Nor- 
folk, and the Archbishop of York, brother to the Earl of Wilt- 
shire, whom Henry, then Duke of Lancaster, had beheaded at 
Bristol. They harbored a violent hatred against Henry, and, 
determined to seek revenge, betook themselves to arms before 
Northumberland was prepared to join them. The Earl of 
AVestmoreland, whose power lay in the neighborhood, approached 
them with an inferior force near Shipton, in Yorkshire. xVfraid 
to hazard an action, he determined to subdue them by strata- 
gem, which nothing but the greatest folly on their part could 
have rendered successful. He desired a conference with the 
archbishop and earl, between the armies ; he heard their griev- 
ances with great patience ; he begged them to propose the 
remedies, and approved of all they suggested. He granted 
them all their demands, in the name of the king, and when he 
saw that they were pleased with the concessions, proposed that 
as amity was now effected, it would be better to dismiss the 
forces on both sides, which otherwise would prove a burden to 
the country. The archbishop and earls immediately gave direc- 
tions for that purpose, and their troops were disbanded on the 
field. But Westmoreland, who had secretly issued contrary 
orders to his army, seized the two rebels and carried them to 
the king. They were tried, condemned, and executed. This 
was the first instance in England of capital punishment inflicted 
on a bishop. The Earl of Northumberland, on hearing this in- 
telligence, fled into Scotlan.d. 

Henry now turned his arms against Glendower, over whom 
his son, the Prince of AY ales had obtained some advantages 
(1407). But that enemy, more troublesome than dangei-ous, 
still found means of defending himself in his fastnesses, and of 
eluding, though not resisting, all the force of England. 



IS 6 HENRY IV. [1407. 

Xortlinmberland and Bardolf, impatient of their exile, now 
entered the ^S'orth in hopes of raising tlie people to arms, but 
fomid the country in such a position as rendered all their at- 
tempts unsuccessful. Sir Thomas llokesby, Sheriff of York- 
shire, levied some forces, attacked the invaders at Bramham, 
and gained a victory in which Xortlunnberland and Bardolf 
were slain. This event, joined to the death of Glendower, which 
liappened soon after, freed Henry from all his domestic enemies. 
This prince, who had mounted the throne by such unjustifi- 
able means, and held it by such an exceptionable title, had by 
his celerity, valor, prudence, and address, accustomed the people 
to the yoke, and had attained a greater ascendancy over his 
haughty barons than the law alone, not supported by these ac- 
tive cpialities, was ever able to confer. 

About this time fortune gave Henry an advantage over one 
who by his situation was most likely to disturb his government, 
llobert HI., King of Scotland, was a prince of slender capacity, 
whose brother, the Duke of Albanj-, had assumed the govern- 
ment of the state. Xot satisfied with his present authority the 
duke entertained the criminal purpose of making away with his 
brother's sons, and acquiring the crown for his own family. He 
threw into prison David, Duke of Rothsay, his eldest nephew, 
who there perished with hunger without the knowledge of the 
king. James alone, the younger brother of David, now stood 
between the tyrant and the throne, and King Bobert, sensible of 
his son's danger, put him on board ship secretly, with the pur- 
pose of sending him to France, and intrusting him to the care 
of that friendly power. Unfortunately the vessel was taken by 
the English, and the young prince, then in his ninth year, was 
carried to London, and although there existed at that time a 
truce between the two kingdoms Henry refused to give him up. 
Robert, worn out with cai-es and infirmities, and unable to bear 
the shock of this last misfortune, soon after died (1406). 

The feeling between France and England during the whole 
of Henry's reign was extremely bitter. Richard had married 
as his second wife, Isabella, a daughter of Charles, who was 
popular in France, and the jealousies and civil commotions of 
both countries ' preven-ted either from taking advantage of the 



1411-12.] HENRY IV. 1S7 

other. But in the year l-ill, comparative quiet being main- 
tained in England, Henry thought he would give a new direc- 
tion to the restless spirit of his people, to prevent their breaking 
out in domestic wars and disorders. 

That he might unite policy with force, he first entered into a 
treaty with the Duke of Bui'gundy, and sent tliat prince a small 
body of troops, to support him against his enemies. Receiving 
more advantageous proj)osals from the Duke of Orleans, he dis- 
patched a larger force to support him, but the leaders of both 
factions having made a temporary accommodation, the interests 
of the English were sacrificed, and this attempt of Henry's 
proved in the end vain and fruitless. The state of his health 
and shortness of his reign prevented. him from renewing the 
attempt. 

Henry was so much employed in defending his crown, which 
he had obtained by unwarrantable means,. that he had little 
leisure to look abroad, or perform any action which might re- 
dound to the honor or advantage of the nation. In his youth 
he acquired vast estates by his marriage with the heiress of the 
Earl of Hereford, but was left a widower at an early age. iVfter 
he became king, he married Joanna of jS'avarre, the widow of 
John, Duke of Brittany, who was an object of dislike to her 
step-son Henry V., and was imprisoned by him. 

He trained his sons to take an active part in public affairs, 
and the younger ones became valuable assistants to his successor 
in his wars. Thomas, Duke of Clarence, was the Lieutenant of 
Ireland ; John, Duke of Bedford, upheld the English rule in 
France, and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, fought at Agin- 
court. 

Unquiet as it was, Henry's reign is remarkable for the rapid 
growth of popular privileges, and the consequent decline of 
royal prerogatives. His Parliament showed little confidence in 
him. They remonstrated freely on any subject that displeased 
them, forced him to dismiss favorite officers of his house- 
hold, who happened to be obnoxious to th|em, and obliged him 
to allow that to the Commons belonged, exclusively, the right 
of imposing taxes, and controlling the public expenditure, and 
setting aside illegal grants. Tliev sometimes showed an extra- 



188 HENRY V. [1413. 

vagaiit jealousy of tlie clnircli, and a desire to confiscate its 
possessions, but Archbishop Arundel defeated the project. 

The character of Henry may be clearly traced in his actions. 
Enterprising, and a seeker of popnlarity in his youth, he let no 
scruples of honor or conscience stand in his way when he had 
ail end to attain, and he was equally unscrupulous and cruel in 
getting rid of even his most devoted adherents, when once they 
had ceased to be useful to him. Ko ties of kindred could miti- 
gate his cruelty, several of the nobles put to death by him being 
very near connections, and his usurpation was the direct cause 
of the disastrous struggle known as the War of the Hoses, by 
which the English nobility were almost annihilated. His health 
declined some months before his death ; he was subject to fits, 
wdiich sometimes deprived him of his senses, and though he 
was in the prime of life, his end was visibly approaching. 

In his last days he had the mortification to learn that his 
eldest son seemed little inclined to wait for his death ere he 
should possess himself of the crown that had been so unjustly 
acquired. At length he fell in a fit while at his devotions in 
Westminster Abbey, and he died, unregretted, a few days 
after, March 20, 1413, in the forty-sixth year of his age and 
fourteenth of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Henry. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Robert III., James I. ; 
France : Charles VI. ; Emperors of the West : Wenceslaus, 
Rupert, Sigismund. 

Henry V. — A.D. 1413-1422. 

Bom at Monmouth, 1388. 

Crowned, April 9, 1413. 

Married Katrine, daughter of Charles YI., King of France. Issue : 

Henry, Prince of Wales. 

Henry, the eldest son of Henry IT. and his' wife, Mary de 
Bohun, and the second king of the Lancaster branch of the Plan- 
tagenet line, was born at Monmouth, August 9, 1388, 

Little is known of his early childhood. On his father's 
banishment, young Henry was seized by Richard II., mIio took 
him with the expedition to Ireland, and there knighted him. 
When the king returned to England to meet Henry's father, he 



1413.] HENRY V. 1S9 

placed him in the Castle of Trim. His father, on usurping the 
throne, caused him to be liberated and brought over to London ; 
he was then created Prince of Wales, October 15, 1399. 

He took part in the different wars waged against the Welsh 
insurgents, was made Lieutenant of the Principality, held an 
important command in the battle of Shrewsbury, and defeated 
the rebels at Grosmont, March 11, 1405. He was with the expe- 
dition sent into Scotland, and received the thanks of Parliament 
for his conduct, was made Constable of Dover and Warden of 
the Cinque Ports in 1409, and in the following year Captain- 
General of Calais. 

The stories respecting the irregularities of his life about this 
time rest upon very insufhcient evidence, but he seems to have 
been, both in theory and practice, above the morality of his 
time. 

Henry was proclaimed king on the 21st of March, 1413, his 
accession causing great rejoicings. 

The first step taken by the young king confirmed the good 
opinion entertained of him. He called together his former 
companions, and acquainted them with his intended reforma- 
tion, exhorted them to imitate his example, but warned them 
not to approach him until they had given proofs of their reforma- 
tion ; he then dismissed them with liberal presents. The wise 
ministers of his father, who had checked his riots, were received 
with the greatest marks of favor and confidence, and the Chief- 
Justice, who had once imprisoned him, was exhorted to persevere 
in the same rigorous and impartial execution of the laws. The 
surprise of all who expected an opposite behavior added to the 
general satisfaction, and the character of the young king ap- 
peared brighter than if it had never been shaded by any errors. 

He was not only anxious to repair his own misconduct, l)ut 
also to make amends for those iniquities into which policy or 
the necessity of affairs had betrayed his father. 

He expressed the deepest sorrow for the fate of the unhappy 
Richard, did justice to his memory, and even performed his 
funeral obsequies with pomp and solemnity, and cherished all 
those who distinguished themselves by their loyalty and attach- 
ment to him. Instead of coiitinuino; the restraints which the 



190 HENRY V. [1414-15. 

■jealousy of liis father had imposed on the Earl of March, he re- 
ceived that young nobleman with great courtesy and favor, by 
which means he so securely gained the friendship of his com- 
petitor that he remained ever after sincerely attached to him, 
and gave him no disturbance in his future government. The 
family of Percy was restored to its fortune and honors, and the 
king seemed desirous to bury all party distinctions in oblivion. 
Those of the former reign who had been advanced for their 
blind zeal to the Lancastrian cause more than for their merits, 
gave place everywhere to men of more honorable character ; 
virtue now appeared to have its own reward ; all men were 
unanimous in their attachment to the king, and the defects of 
his title were forgotten amidst the personal regard which was 
imiversally paid to him. 

The only difficulty now was in ecclesias'tical matters. The 
Lollards were becoming formidable, not only to the church, 
but to the civil authority, and Henry was determined to execute 
the laws against them, particularly as he was attached to Catho- 
licism, both from conviction and supposed intei-est. The head 
of the sect was Lord Cobliam, a nobleman who had distinguished 
himself by his valor and military talents. His high character 
and zeal pointed him out to the Archbishop of Ganterbury as 
the proper victim of ecclesiastical severity, whose punishment 
would strike terror to the whole party. He applied to Henry 
for permission to indict Cobham. The generous nature of the 
king was averse to such sanguinary methods of conversion, and 
he himself endeavored, by a conversation, to reconcile him to 
the Catholic faith, but he found that nobleman obstinate in 
his opinions. Ilenry's principles of toleration could carry him 
no farther, and he then gave fail reins to ecclesiastical severity 
against the inflexible heretics. The primate indicted Col)ham, 
and lie was condemned to the flames for his erroneous opinions, 
but subsequently made his escape. Being concerned in an in- 
surrection some time afterward, he again escaped, but was 
taken prisoner four years afterward, when he was tried as a 
traitor, found guilty, and hanged. 

A conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne was 
discovered by Henry at its inception, 1415, and the Earl of 



1415.] HENRY V. 191 

Cambridge — second son of tlie late Duke of York — Lord Scrope, 
and Sir Tliomas Gray, tlie principal leaders, were tried, found 
guilty, and executed. 

The Duke of Burgundy being expelled from France by a 
combination of tlie princes, applied to Ilenry for assistance, 
who on the 1-ith of August, 1415, put to sea with an army of 
thirty thousand men, and landed near Ilarfleur. He immedi- 
ately began the siege of that place, which was valiantly de- 
fended, but fell on the 18th of September. Henry, taking 
possession of the town, placed a garrison in it, expelled all the 
French, with the intention of peopling it anew by English im- 
migration. The fatigues of the siege and the unusual heat of 
the season had so weakened the English ai-niy, that Henry 
could enter into no further undertaking, and was obliged to 
think of returning to England. 

He had dismissed his transports, which could not anchor in 
open roads upon .an eneniy''s coast, and he lay under the neces- 
sity of marching to Calais before he could reach a place of 
safety. A French army of fifty-tive thousand men was by this 
time assembled in Kormandy — a force, if jorudently handled, 
sufRcient either to trample down the English in the open field, 
or to harass and reduce to nothing their small army before they 
could finish so long and difficult a march. Ilenry thei-efore 
offered to sacrifice his conquest of Ilarfleur for a safe passage 
to Calais ; but his pi'oposal being rejected, determined to make 
his way tlirough all opposition. 

Not to discourage or fatigue his army, he made slow and 
deliberate journeys until he reached the Somme, but he found 
the ford rendered impassable by the JDrecaution of the French, 
and guarded by a strong body on the opposite bank. He was 
obliged to march higher up the river, was continually harassed 
on his inarch by flying parties, and saw large bodies of troops 
on the other side, ready to oppose every attempt. His pro- 
visions were getting scarce, his supply cut ofl^, his soldiers lan- 
guished with sickness and fatigue, and his affairs appeai'ed to 
be reduced to a desperate situation. At this juncture he was 
so fortunate as to seize, by surprise, a passage near St. Quentin, 
which had. not been sufficiently guarded, and he safely carried 



102 HENRY V. [1415. 

over his army. Henry then bent his march northward, to 
Calais, but was still exposed to great and imminent danger 
from the enemy, who had also passed the Sonime and threw 
themselves fully in his way, with the purpose of intercepting 
his retreat. After he had passed the small river of Ternois, 
25th of October, he M'as surprised to observe from the heights 
the whole French army drawn up on the plains of Agincourt, 
and so posted that it was impossible for him to proceed on his 
march without comino; to an eno-airement. 

JS'othing could be more unequal than a battle with the op- 
posing force. The English army was little more than half the 
number which had disembarked at Ilarlleur, and they now 
labored under every disadvantage. The enemy was four times 
their number, was headed by the dauphin with all the prinees 
of the blood, and was plentifully supplied with everything 
requisite, Henry, with great prudence, drew up his army on 
a narrow ground between two woods, which guarded each 
flank, and patiently waited the attack of the enemy. 

But the impetuous valor of the French noljility, and a vain 
confidence of superior numbers, brought on a fatal action^ 
which proved the source of infinite calamities to their country. 
From the nature of the ground, the narrow space in which they 
were pent up prevented them from recovering order. 

A panic soon took the place of their former rash confidence, 
and they hastened back, throwing the rest of their army into 
great confusion. It was now the turn of the English to be- 
come the assailants. While the archers steadily pressed on in 
the centre of the line, the king Avith his knights and men-at- 
arms dashed at the scjuadrons where the banners of the French 
princes were displayed, and a furious hand-to-hand contest en- 
sued. Henry was conspicuous from the crown on his helmet, 
and wherever he moved the fight was the fiercest. His young 
brother, the Duke of Gloucester, was wounded, and Henry, 
while standing over him to protect him, was brought on his 
knees by a sword-cut, that split one of the jewels of his crown. 
His cousin, the Duke of York, was killed near him, the close 
of his career being thus more honoi'able than his life. About 
twenty French knights, led by the Lord of Croy, charged in a 



1415-17.] HENRY V. 193 

compact body, liaving sworn to capture or kill the king, but they 
were all killed instead. AVhile this was going on, the Duke of 
Alen^on, one of the French princes, joined in the fray, but, 
after exchanging a blow or two with the king he was hurled 
from his horse and killed, though Henry called out to spare his 
life. 

The battle had now lasted three hours ; seven French princes 
and a hundred great nobles lay dead on the field, as well as 
eight thousand knights and gentlemen, but the loss among the 
connnon men was comparatively small, as the knights and 
nobles hurried forward, and thus sheltered them bv becomino- 
themselves mere targets for the English archers. 
' The fall of the Duke of Alen9on disheartened his knights, 
and they fled from the field, followed by the rear-guard, al- 
though it had not been engaged, and was alone more numerous 
than the English army. 

The prisoners taken were the Dukes of Bourbon and Oi'leans, 
Arthur of Brittany, and more than fifteen hundred knights and 
nobles, with ten thousand men ; but many of these were put 
to death after the battle had ceased, in consequence of an attack 
made on the baggage-guard of the English by a party of Frencli 
fugitives led by Robinet de Borneville. This was at first 
thought to be a renewal of the action, and every man was or- 
dered to kill his prisoners. The order was reluctantly obeyed, 
and when Henry learned the truth he commanded that the 
slaughter should cease. 

The loss of the English, nnlike that of the French, fell prin- 
cipally on the connnon men, sixteen hundred of whom were 
slain, but only a few knights and nobles. 

Henry immediately after the battle continued his march to 
Calais, where he carried his prisoners, fully ten thousand men, 
and from thence sailed for England. He made a peace with 
the enemy, and for two years afterward no English troops ap- 
peared in France. 

For the next two years France was exposed to all the furies of 

civil war, and Henry thought it a good time to revive the claim 

of the English sovereign to the crown of France, although it 

was far less strong in his person than that of Edward HI. His 

13 



194 HENRY V. [141??. 

determination is attributed to tlie advice of the clergy, who 
wislied to draw off the attention of the people from the aifairs 
of tlie chnrch. 

He therefore raised an army, and on August 1, 141S, landed 
in Normandy at the head of twenty-five thonsand men, and met 
with little opposition from any cpiarter. He made himself 
master of Falaise, Evreaux, and Caen ; Pont de I'Arch opened 
its gates. Having snbdued all lower Xormandy, and received 
a reinforcement of fifteen thousand men from England, he began 
the siege of Rouen, which was defended by a garrison of four 
thousand men, seconded by all its inhabitants. 

Henry, in the meantime, M'as ready to treat with either of the 
two parties who had for a long time been opposed to each other 
in France — the dauphin (King Charles being almost imbecile) 
on one side, and the Duke of Burgundy and the queen on the 
other, they having possession of the king's person. The terms 
proposed on all sides were perpetually changing, the events of 
the war, and the intrigues of the cabinet intermingling with 
each other. After many negotiations Henry offered the queen 
and the Dnke of Burgundy to make peace with them, to espouse 
the Princess Catherine, and to accept of all the provinces ceded 
to Edward HI. by the treaty of Bretegni, with the addition of 
JSTormandy, whicli he was to receive in full and entire sover- 
eignty. These terms were agreed to, there remained only some 
other circumstances to adjust, in order to complete the treaty, 
when, in the interval, the Duke of Burgundy secretly finished 
his treaty with the dauphin, and these two princes agreed to 
share the royal authority between them, during King Charles's 
lifetime, and to unite their forces in order to expel the foreign 
enemy. 

This alliance, which seemed to cut off from Henry all hopes 
of further success, proved in the end the most favorable cir- 
cumstance that could have happened. 

Whetlier the dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy were ever 
sincere in their mutual engagements is uncertain, but very fatal 
effects resulted from their seeming union. They agreed to an 
interview, in order to arrange the means of rendering the attack 
on the English effectual ; but how they could safely venture upon 



1419.] HENRY V. 195 

tliis conference seemed difficult to contrive. Tlie tAvo princes 
came to Montrean, the duke lodged in the castle, the dauphin 
in the town, wliich was di\'ided from the castle by the river 
Yonne. The bridge between them Avas chosen for the inter- 
view; two high rails were drawn across the l)ridge ; the gates 
on each side were guarded, one bv the officers of the dauphin, 
the other by those of the duke. The princes were to enter into 
the intermediate space by opposite gates, accompanied each by 
ten persons, and there to conciliate their mutual friendship. 

But it a2:)peared that no precautions are sufficient where laws 
have no place, and where principles of honor are utterly aban- 
doned. 

De Chatel and the others of the dauphin's retainers had been 
zealous partisans of the late Duke of Orleans, who had been 
murdered by the Duke of Burgundy ; they determined to seize 
this opportunity of revenging on the assassin the murder of that 
prince. On entering w^ithin the rails, therefore, they drew their 
swords and attacked the duke. His friends were astonished, 
and, not being prepared for defence, either shared his fate or 
were taken prisoners (1419). The extreme youth of the dauphin 
made it doubtful whether he liad been admitted into the secret 
of the conspiracy, but as he was present when the deed was 
committed, the whole blame fell upon him. 

The whole state of affairs was everywhere changed l)y this 
unexpected incident. 

The city of Paris, passionately devoted to the family of P>ur- 
gundy, broke out in the greatest fury against the dauphin. The 
court of King Charles entered from interest into the same views. 
The queen, persevering in her unnatural animosity against her 
son, increased the general flame and inspired in the king, as far 
as he was susceptil)le of any sentiment, the same prejudices by 
wdiicli she herself had long been actuated. 

But above all, Philip, now Duke of Burgundy, thought him- 
self l)Ound, by every tie of honor and of duty, to revenge the 
murder of his father, and to prosecute the assassin to the utmost 
extremity. 

Meanwhile, the King of England, profiting by the distractions 
of France, was daily making a considerable progress in Isor^ 



IC)(] HENRY V. [14:J0. 

maudy. Ronen liad fallen, after an obstinate siege; he had 
made himself master of Pontoise and (lisors ; he even threatened 
Paris, and, by the terror of his arms, made the court remove to 
Troyes. In the midst of his successes, he was agreeably sur- 
prised to find his enemies, instead of combining against him 
for their mutual defence, disposed to rush into his arms, and to 
make him the instrument of their vengeance upon each other. 

A league was immediately concluded between him and the 
Duke of Burgundy. This prince, without stipulating anything 
for himself, excepting the prosecution of his father's murderer, 
and the marriage of the Dul*e of Bedford with his sister, was 
willing to sacrifice the kingdom to Henry's ambition, and he 
agreed to every demand made by that monarch. 

Henry went to Troyes, accompanied by his brother, and was 
there met by the Duke of Burgundy. 

The imbecility into which Charles had fallen made him in- 
capable of seeing anything except through the eyes of those 
who attended him, and they on their part saw only through the 
medium of their passions. The treaty being agreed to was 
immediately drawn up, signed, and ratified. May 21, 1420. 
Henry's will seemed to be law throughout the whole negotia- 
tion. 

The principal articles of the treaty were that Henry should 
marry the Princess Catherine ; that King Charles, during his 
lifetime, should enjoy the title and dignity of King of France; 
that Henry should be declared and acknowledged heir of the 
monarchy, and be intrusted with the present administration of 
the government ; that that kingdom should pass to his heirs 
general ; that France and England should be forever united 
under one king, but should still retain their several usages, cus- 
toms, and privileges ; and that all the princes, peers, vassals, and 
communities of France should swear that they would both ad- 
here to the future succession of Henry, and pay liim present 
obedience as regent. 

Such was the tenor of this famous treaty, which nothing but 
the most violent animosity could dictate, and nothing but the 
power of the sword carry into execution. 

Henry was now determined to press his present advantages, 



1-:21.] HENRY V. IQ-J 

and allow others no leisure for i-eason or reflection. A few 
days after he married Princess Catherine he carried his father- 
in-law to Paris, and put hiipself in possession of that capital ; 
he obtained from the Parliament and three estates a ratification 
of the treaty of Troyes. 

He then supported the Duke of Bui'ij^undy in procuring a 
sentence against the nnirderers of his father, and turned his 
anus with success against the adherents of the dauphiii. 

The necessity of providing supplies both of men and money 
obliged Henry, in 1421, to go over to England, and he left his 
uncle, the Duke of Exeter, Go\iernor of Paris during his ab- 
sence. 

He now levied a new army of thirty thousand men and re- 
turned to Paris, M'here he was received with great expressions 
of joy, and for the space of twelve months gained several vic- 
tories over the dauphin, depriving him of all his northern 
possessions, and to crown all other prosperity, his queen was 
safely delivered of a son, who was called by his father's name, 
and whose birth was celebrated by rejoicings no less sincere at 
Paris than at London. The infant prince seemed to be uni- 
versally regarded as the future heir of both kingdoms. 

But the glory of Henry, when it had nearly reached the smn- 
mit, was stopped short by the hand of nature, and all his 
mighty projects vaTiished. 

He was seized with a fistula, a malady which the surgeons of 
that time had not skill enough to cure, and he knew his end 
was approaching. 

He sent for his brother, the Duke of Bedford, and for the 
Earl of Warwick and a few other noblemen, and delivered to 
them his last will witli regard to the government of his king- 
dom and family. He entreated them to continue toward his 
infant son the same fidelity and attachment which they had 
always professed to himself. He left the Pegency of France 
to his eldest brother, the Duke of Bedford, that of England to 
the Duke of Gloucester, and the care of his son's person to the 
Earl of Warwick. And he conjured them, if the success of 
their arms should not enable them to place young Henry on the 
throne of France, never, at least, to make peace with that king- 



l<)g HENRY VI. [1423. 

doni unless the enemy, hj the cession of Xoniiandy and its 
annexation to the crown of England, made compensation for all 
the hazard and expense of his expedition. 

Though boundless ambition was the great feature of Ilenrv's 
character, and he was gifted with such skill and courage as made 
his reign one series of triumphs, he was something more than a 
mere con(pieror. His character is stained by the execution of 
his Scottish prisoners, but at other times he showed both 
clemency and liberality, and was thus able to conciliate many of 
his father's opponents. 

A proof of his wisdom renviins in the instructions that he 
issued to his army invading France for the prevention of all 
wanton havoc, and in the directions that he gave for the pro- 
tection of the miarmed population he showed as much humanity 
as would be expected in modern times. 

He died on the 31st of August, 1422, in the thirty-fourth 
year of his age and tenth of his reign, and was succeeded by his 
infant son, Henry. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : James I. ; France : 
Charles YI. ; Emperor of the West: Sigismund. 

Henry VI. — A.D. 1422-1461. 

Born at Windsor, December G, 1421. 
Crowned, November, 1429. 

Married Margaret of Anjon, April, 1445. Issue : 

Edward, Prince of Wales, born October lo, 1458 ; married Lady Ann Neville, 
who afterward married Richard III. 

Hexky, only son of Henry \". and his queen Catherine of 
France, last monarch of the Lancaster line, was born at Wind- 
sor Castle, December 6, 1421. 

His reign is reckoned as having commenced August 31, 1422, 
the day of his father's death, when he was only nine months old. 

Parliament dec-lared him King of France and England and 
Lord of Ireland, and the last will of his father created the 
Duke of Bedford, his father's elder brother. Regent of Frant-e, 
and the younger brother, tlie Duke of (lloucester, Protector, 
Defender, and Chief Councillor of England and the Church. 



1423.] HENRY VI. 199 

The care of the young king's person and education was confided 
to the Earl of Warwick and Bishop Beaufort, his grand-uncle, 
son of John of Gaunt. Charles YI. of France having died on 
the 24th of October, 1422, Henry was proclaimed King of 
France in all those parts of the country which were in posses- 
sion of the English, while the dauphin, as Charles YIL, was 
crowned by the French the same year at Poitiers. 

As Henry was in his infancy, the administration devolved on 
the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince of his age, 
wliose experience, valor, prudence, and generosity qualified him 
for his high office. The whole power of England was at his 
command ; he was at the head of armies inured to victoiy, and 
seconded by the most renowned generals of the age. 

Charles, notwithstanding the present inferiority of his power, 
possessed some advantages, parti}' from his situation, partly 
from his personal character, but principally because he was the 
true and undoubted heir of the monarchy, and all Frenchmen 
who desired the independence of their country turned their 
eyes toward him as their only hope, particularly as most of the 
princes of the blood were detained prisoners in England since 
the battle of Agincourt. 

As the chief circumstance which had procui'ed to the Eng- 
lish all their present advantages was the resentment of Philip, 
Duke of Burgundy, against Charles, and as that prince seemed 
determined to gratify his passion rather than consult his inter- 
ests, the regent used every means to retain him in alliance 
with England. He offered Philip the regency of France, 
which he declined, and that he might join national connections 
by pi-ivate ties,, he concluded his own marriage with the Prin- 
cess of Burgundy, which had been stipulated for by the treaty 
of Arras. 

FTe next concluded an alliance with the Duke of Brittany, 
which was of the greatest importance, as the provinces of 
France already subdued lay between the dominions of these 
two princes. 

Arthur, Count of Pichemont, brother of the Duke of Brit- 
tany, had been taken prisoner by Henry Y. at Agincourt, but 
liad been permitted to take a journey into Brittany on his pa- 



200 HENRY VI. [1423-4. 

role ; the deatli of tliat monarch happened before TJicheniont's 
retnrn, and this prince pretended that, as his word was given 
personally to Henry, he was not bonnd to fulfil it toward his 
son and successor. As the regent could not force him to com- 
pliance he deemed it prudent to overlook the dereliction. On 
the ITth of April, 1423, an interview was arranged between 
the Dukes of Bedford, Brittany, and Burgnndy, at Amiens, at 
which the Count of Bichemont was also present, and an alli- 
ance was i-enewed and made between them. 

As the Scotch were rendering valuable assistance to France 
by supplying large bodies of trooj^s, mIio were treated by 
Charles with great honor and distinction, Bedford prevailed on 
the English council to form an alliance with James, their pris- 
onei', in order to free that prince from his long captivity, and to 
connect him Avith England b)' marrying him to a daughter of 
the Earl of Somerset, and cousin of the yovmg king, particu- 
larly as the Scottish regent was tired of his present dignity, 
and was anxious for James's liberty. The treaty was soon con- 
cluded, a ransom of £40,000 was stipulated, the King of Scots 
was returned to the throne of his ancestors, and proved, in his 
short reign, one of the most illustrious j^rinces that had ever 
governed that kingdom. 

The seat of (^harles's power lay in the south, beyond the 
Loire ; his partisans were possessed of some fortresses in the 
northern provinces, and even in the neighborhood of Paris, 
and it behoved the Duke of Bedford first to clear these places 
from the enemy before he coidd think of more distant con- 
quests. In this he was successful, together with the forces of 
Bui-gundy opening an entrance into the southern j^rovinces, 
which seemed to promise a successful issue of the war. 

On the 27th of August, 1424, the battle of Yerneuil was 
fought, Bedfoi-d conmianding the English, while the Earl of 
Buclian, Constable of Fi'ance, commanded the French, the for- 
mer gaining a complete ^'ictory. 

The condition of the French king now appeared almost des- 
perate, lie had lost the flower of his army, and the bra\"e.st 
of his nobles in this fatal action. He had no recourse either for ' 
recruiting his army, or for their subsistence ; he wanted money 



1435.] HENRY VI. OQ^ 

even for his personal nse, and, though all parade of a conrt 
was hanished, it was with difficulty he could keep his tahle 
supplied with the plainest necessities. Every day brought him 
intelligence of some loss or disaster. ; towns which were bravely 
defended were obliged to snrrender, for want of relief or sup- 
ply. He saw his partisans chased from all the northern prov- 
inces, and he expected soon to lose all the territories of which, 
nntil then, he was master. At this crisis an incident occurred 
which saved him from ruin, while the English lost such an 
oppoi'tunity for coinpleting their conquest which they never 
afterward were able to recover. 

Jaqueiine, Countess of Ilainault, had, for reasons of state, 
married John, Duhe of Brabant, cousin of the Duke of Bur- 
gundy, but, from various causes, had reason to repent of the 
unequal alliance, she being a princess of masculine spirit and 
full vigor, while he M'as of a sickly constitution and weak mind, 
and had only reached his fifteenth year. These causes had in- 
spired her with such contenqit for her liusband that she was Re- 
solved to dissolve a marriage wliere, it is probable, nothing but 
the ceremony had as yet been consunmiated. The princess 
made her escape to England, and threw herself under the pro- 
tection of the Duke of Gloucester. That prince had the defect 
of being governed by an impetuous temper. He was rashly 
induced, as well by the charms of the countess as by the pros- 
pect of possessing her rich inherirance, to offer himself as her 
husband, without waiting for a papal dispensation, or endeav- 
oring to reconcile the Duke of Bm-gundy. Pie entered into a 
contract of marriage Avith her, and immediately attempted to 
take possession of her dominions. The Duke of Burgundy, 
disgusted with such precipitate conduct, resented the injury 
done to his cousin. He dreaded to have the English estab- 
lished on all sides of him, and foresaw the consequences. He 
therefore encouraged the Duke of Brabant to make resistance, 
marclied troops to his support, and as Gloucester still perse- 
vered in his purpose, a sharp war was suddenly kindled in the 
Low Countries. 

The Duke of Bedford could easily foresee the effect of so ill- 
timed and imprudent a quarrel. 



202 HENRY VI, [14'2fi-7. 

Ail tlie succors which lie expected from England, and which 
were so necessary at this critical time, were intercepted hy his 
brother, and employed in Holland. The forces of the Duke 
of Burgundy, which he also. depended on, were diverted by the 
same war, and, besides this double loss, there arose the danger 
of alienating that brother, whom the late king had, with his 
dying breath, bade him to gratify by every mark of regard and 
attachment. 

lie represented all his fears to Gloucester, he attempted to 
mitigate the resentment of Burgundy, but Avas not successful 
in any of his endeavors. 

For this reason, instead of pushing his victory at Verneuil, 
he found himself obliged to take a journey to England, and 
try, by his council and authority, to moderate the measures of 
the Duke of Gloucester. 

About this time the Duke of Brabant l)egan to withdraw 
himself fi-om the Englisli alliance, and as his brother, the 
Count of Bichemont, had been offered the staff of Constable of 
France by Charles, made vacant by the death of the Earl of 
Buchan, he not oidy accepted that office, but brought over his 
brother to an alliance with the French king. 

Li tliis situation the Duke of Bedford, on his return in 1426, 
found the affairs of France, but soon after his arrival the repu- 
tation of the English arms revived. He secretly brought 
together a consideral)le army to the fi'ontiers of Brittany, and 
fell so unexpectedly upon that province, that the duke, unable 
to make resistance, yielded t(j all tlie terms required of him. 
He renounced the French alliance, engaged to maintain the 
treaty of Troyes, acknowledged the Duke of Bedford as Regent 
of France, and promised to do homage for his duchy to King 
Henry. 

The city of Orleans being situated between the provinces 
commanded by Henry and those j^ossessed by Cliarles, the Duke 
of Bedford, hi tending to make a great effort to penetrate into 
the south of France, determined to begin with this place. Tliis 
intention becoming known to Charles, he was determined to 
frustrate the design, and used every expedient to supply the 
city with a garrison and provisions, to enable it to maintain a 



1428.] HENRY VI. 203 

long and obstinate siege. The Lord of Ganconr, a brave and 
experienced general, was appointed governor ; many officers of 
distinction tlirew tlieniselves into the place, connnanding troops 
inured to war, and tliey were determined to make the most oIj- 
stinate resistance ; the eyes of all Enrope M'ere turned toward 
them. 

Salisbury commanded the English forces, consisting of ten 
thousand men, but was soon killed and his place was supplied 
by the Earl of Suffolk. 

Numberless feats of valor were performed by both sides ; 
bold sallies were made and repulsed with equal boldness ; con- 
voys were introduced and intercepted, and the supplies were un- 
equal to the wants of the place ; the English wei-e daily, though 
slowly, advancing toward the completion of their enterprise. 
The siege had lasted a year, and the city was on the point of 
surrendering through famine, when a deliverance little expected 
by either party took place. There was a young peasant girl, 
aged eighteen, Joan of Arc, a native of Lorraine, who was re- 
markable for her piety. In her solitary meditations she began 
to see visions, and to hear voices, and she believed that a spirit 
had commanded her to go to the snccor of the king (Charles 
YIL), and that she could recover for him his kingdom. From 
time to time she had told her friends what she had seen and 
heard : " My voices have instructed me " — " my voices have 
connnanded me," were her expressions. Tlie voices which Joan 
heai'd disclosed to her the way to carry out her idea ; they told 
her she must put herself in connnunication with sonie great 
person. She sought the feudal Lord of Baudricourt at Yaucou- 
leurs, who however sent her away as one deranged. She told 
her story to two gentlemen who dwelt near her. " There is no 
help for France but in me," she said ; "I would rather spin by 
the side of my poor mother, but I must go ; my Lord calls me." 
Iler pretensions were spread abroad. At last the Lord of Bau- 
dricourt listened to her when she again came before him, and 
provided her with the equipment of a horse and a man's dress, 
and she went forth on her perilous journey, and after travelling 
eleven days, by the most unfrequented roads, arrived at Chinon, 
where King Charles kept his little court. 



204 HENRY VI. [1429. 

Her fame had gone before lier, and after some difficulty she 
was allowed to approach the king. 

From the moment when she puhliclj announced her mission 
to the court, many things which she pi'obably did through her 
own shrewd sense, were accounted miracles. It is said she 
selected the king out of a crowd of attendants, and to have in- 
dicated to him facts only known to himself. Every precaution 
appears to have been taken to prevent the king's cause being 
connnitted to an impostor. Her honest life was fully proved, 
and in the conviction of her sanctity, learned doctors, prudent 
councillors, and l)old warj-iors agreed that tlie maid should be 
coniided in. A suit of armor was provided for her, and she 
indicated where a sword could be found behind the altar of a 
clnn'ch at Fierbois. 

At the head of a large force she set out for Orleans, having 
authority from the king for its connnaud over the best knights 
of France. 

At Blois she put on her armor. Marching on the right bank 
of the Loire she desired to enter Orleans through the English 
lines on that side. She was overruled by Dunois, of which she 
bitterly complained. It was at length decided that boats, loaded 
with supplies, should proceed up the river. The day was stormy, 
and the boats could make no M'ay. "" The wind will change,'' 
said the confident girl. It did change, and the supplies and 
troops, in the midst of a thuiulerstorm, were safely landed a 
little below the city on April 12, 1429. Meanwhile the garrison 
of Orleans made a soi'tie on the north, which diverted the atten- 
tion of the besiegei's. An hour after dark Joan of Arc I'ode into 
Orleans by the eastern gate, mounted on a white horse — her 
standard, on which was the figure of our Saviour, being borne 
before her. The people, by torch-light, crowded around her, 
and she exhorted them to honor God, and to trust in her for 
their deliverance. 

This extraordinary aid, wliich was supposed to be supernatural, 
was soon whispered in the English camp, where many evinced 
fears of impending misfortunes. 

The following day a herald from Joan presented himself at 
the English camp. The respect paid to the messenger of princes 



U29.] HENRY VI. 205 

was denied to one of a reputed sorceress, and he M'as threatened 
to be burnt as a heretic. Another lierald came to defy the 
Earl of Suffolk, and to declare the order of the commander of 
the French, that if the messenger of the maid received any 
harm, it should be visited upon the English prisoners. 

These proceedings began to spread alarm among the brave 
yeomen of England, who had fronted so many dangers in the 
field, but who had a terror of witches and magicians character- 
istic of that period. 

The soldiers of Suffolk and Talbot looked on in terror and 
amazement, when, on a tower facing the Tournelles, a form ap- 
peared in shining armor and bade them depart if they would 
avoid misery and shame. William Gladsdale, the commander 
of the Tournelles, reviled the maiden, and told her to go back 
to her cows. " Your men will be driven to retreat," she ex- 
claimed, " but you will not live to fly with them." 

The French waited for reinforcements from other garrisons 
before they attempted any great operations against the besiegers. 
Joan was invariably for instant attack, without heeding any 
disparity of numbers or disadvantages of position. Some of 
the knights were indignant at her assumed authority, but by 
her resistless force of will she conquered all opposition. The 
succors were at length at hand. There was no attempt to bring 
them into the city under tlie cover of darkness or while the 
English were engaged in another quarter. At the head of the 
French knights and soldiers, followed by the people of the 
town, Joan rode forth with her banner between the towers of 
the besiegers. They looked on in wonder ; but there was no 
resistance. When she returned at night she threw lierself ex- 
hausted on her bed. Awakened by a noise, she cried out " My 
arms ! My horse." She rushed into the street, mounted with 
her banner, and rode alone to the spot where she heard the 
clamor. 

A rash sortie had been made, and the assailants were driven 
back. AYhen they saw the white horse and the banner of the 
maid they shouted for joy, and followed her out of the gate 
into the besieg-ers' lines. After an eno;ao;ement of three hours 
the English fort was taken and set on tire. It was Joan's first 



206 HENRY VI. [1429. 

hattle, Slie liad fonglit with the courage and address of a 
most accomplished kniglit. 

TJie terror of the Englisli after the sortie became miiversa]. 
The following day the maid and the chiefs crossed the Loire in 
a hoat, and led an attack npon a fortification npon the left bank, 
where she was slightly wounded, and spent the night upon the 
field. 

The great force of the besiegers was on the right T)ank of the 
river, and the Governor of Orleans was opposed to this leading 
forth of the garrison, to leave the city defenceless, while the 
English were attacked on the left bank. But the dai'ing maid 
liad quite won the real leadership of the soldiei-s and citizens, 
and, without any concert with the leadei's, she rose early in the 
morning and went forthwith a tunndtuous crowd to the Bur- 
gundy gate. It was shut against her egress. The governor 
Avas compelled to open it, and she rode out, followed by soldiers 
and a great multitude. Their counsel being thus rejected, 
the French knights Avith their *men-at-arms reluctantly fol- 
lowed ; but their prudence was soon laid aside by the din of 
battle. 

The river was crossed, ami Joan connnenced an assault on the 
Tournelles, the great fort held to be impregnable. She was 
wounded by an arrow, and fell into a ditch, but M'as carried off 
by her friends. The attack had lasted four hoin-s, and nothing 
had been gained. The retreat was sounded. Joan implored 
Dunois not to move. " Let our people rest and cat and drink," 
she said. The Lord of Daul)on, who was against a retreat, took 
the standard, and Avaving the well-known sign of victory, the 
French rallied round him. Seeing what was taking place, Joan 
Avent forward to claim her standard. The English, who had 
seen her fall and wounded, felt a new alarm when the French 
advanced again to the attack nnder their marvellous leader. 

From the other bank the people from Orleans Avere stornnng 
the Tournelles, having crossed* the broken arches of the bridge by 
planks. The English Avere now between two assaults, and the 
soldiers were filled with superstitious awe. Gladsdale Avas retreat- 
ing Avhen he Avas killed, and the maid's prophetic Avords were ac- 
complished. The English noAv threw down their arms, and 



14-29-30.] HENRY VI. 2(;7 

were slaughtered, drowned, or taken prisoners to tlie nund)ero£ 
seven thousand men, 

No aid came from tlie panic-stricken camp, and the maid 
passed over the repaired bridge into the city amidst the shouts 
of the multitude, while every steeple sent forth its peals of 
happy bells, and at every church a Tc Deum M'as sung on that 
night of victory. 

The following morning, May S, 1429, the English marched 
out of the forts and formed in order of battle, but Suffolk, find- 
ing his troops so intimidaterl, deemed it dangerous to remain 
any longer in the presence of so courageous and victorious an 
enemy ; he raised tlie siege, and retreated with all precautions 
possible. 

The French were resolved to. push tlieir conquest and to 
allow the English no leisure to recover from their consternation, 
Charles sent a body of six thousand men to attack Jergen, where 
the Earl of Suffolk had retired ; the siege lasted ten days, but 
at last the place fell, and Suffolk was taken prisoner. The 
English army being now defeated, Charles set out for llheims, 
Troyes and Chalons opened their gates to him, and on Jidy 17, 
1429, he was crowned and anointed in the former city. The 
town of Compiegne was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy, 
assisted by the Earls of Arundel and Suffolk. Joan of Ai-c threw 
herself into that town to assist the besieged ; the next day after 
her arrival. May 24, 1430, she headed a sally upon the enemy, 
was deserted by her followers, and taken prisoner. Cai'ried to 
Kouen, accused of sorcery, impiety, and magic, she was tried 
before the Bishop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the 
English, found guilty, and sentenced to be burned. On June 
14, 1431, the sentence M'as carried out. 

The affairs of the English, far from being advanced by the 
execution of Joan, went every day more and more against them. 
The great abilities of the Duke of Bedford were unable to resist 
the strong inclination which had seized the French to return to 
the alleo'iance of their rii>:htful sovereign who was now success- 
ful everywhere. 

Place after place held by the English fell ; all these misfor- 
tunes brouii-ht discredit on them. 



208 HEKRY VI. [1431-43. 

To try to stem the rising feeling in favor of Charles, Bedford 
carried his young nephew over to Paris, and had him crowned 
(1431), but it was soon seen that to hope to really subdue and 
hold the whole of France was a mere delusion ; conferences, 
therefore, were Iveld, but they did not procure peace, as neither' 
party would make any considerable concession to the other. 

In 1435, the Duke of Burgundy became dissatisiied with liis 
English alliance, and appears to have been willing to relent in 
his animosity against Charles, and to receive apologies from that 
monarch for the murder of his father. The king pleaded his 
extreme youth, his incapacity to judge for himself, and the 
power then held over him by his ministers. The more to Hatter 
the duke, the king banished from his court, de Cliatel, and all 
those who were concerned in the murder. AVhile the duke was 
in this disposition he was entreated to agree, by the Earl of 
Kichemont and Duke of Bourbon, and he tinally determined to 
unite himself with the roj-A house of France, from which his 
own family was descended, and on August 14, 1435, a congress 
was held at AiTas in which a treaty was made between them. 

A few days after the Duke of Bedford received intelligence 
of this treaty, so fatal to the interests of England, he died at 
liouen (September 14, 1435) ; he was succeeded in the office of 
Regent of France by the Duke of York, son of the Earl of Cam- 
bridge, who was executed in the last reign ; but it was seven 
months before the appointment was made, and the English 
remained in the enemy's country for that length of time with- 
out a proper head or governor. 

The new governor on his arrival found the capital already 
lost. The Parisians had always been more attached to the 
Burgundian than to the English interest, and troops were in- 
troduced at night by tlie assistance of the citizens. Lord Wil- 
loughby, who commanded only a small garrison, was expelled, 
and allowed to retreat with his troops into IS^ormandy. 

Negotiations had been carried on for some time between the 
Earl of Suffolk and the French ministers for a lasting peace, 
but it was found impossible to agree to terms, and on May 28, 
1443, a truce for twenty-two months M'as concluded between the 
i^vo kingdoms. 



1-145-50.] HENRY VI, 209 

As Henry advanced in years liis character became fully known 
to all parties. He was of the most harmless, inoffensive, and 
simple manners, bnt of the most slender capacity, and was 
liable, both by the mildness of his temper and the weakness of 
his understanding, to be perpetually governed by those who 
surrounded him. It was easy to see his reign would prove a 
perpetual minority. 

On the ending of the protectorate there had been great con- 
tention between tlie Cardinal Beaufort and the Duke of Glouces- 
ter ; the former ti-iumphed, who then gave the government a 
strong ecclesiastical tendency. As the king had now reached 
liis twenty-third year, the Beaufort party arranged a marriage 
between him and Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Begnier, King 
of Sicily. The cei-emony was pei-formed on April 22, l-t-io, and 
was unpopular in England, both on account of Margaret's rela- 
tionship to the French king, and because, for her hand, Maine 
and Anjou were surrendered to her father, who claimed them 
by right of inheritance. 

A conspiracy was formed against the Duke of Gloucester by 
the Beaufort party ; he was accused of treason, and throM'n into, 
prison, and on Febi'uary 28, 1447, was found dead in his bed, 
no doidjt murdered in the same way as Edward 11. and Bichard 
II. 

In 1449 Charles renewed the ^var by the invasion of jSTor- 
mandy with four powerful armies, and in the short space of 
twelve months Cherbourg, the last place in Kormandy which 
reiifiained in the English hands, was delivered up to the con- 
queror, to the great joy of the inhabitants and the whole French 
nation. Though no peace or truce was concluded between France 
and England, the war was considered at an end. Calais was the 
only possession in France now held by/ England. 

As the incapacity of the king appeared every day in a clearer 
light, dangerous consequences began to be apprehended, and 
men of unquiet spirits — no longer employed in foreign wars — 
began to excite intestine disorders. One Jack Cade, a native 
of Ireland, raised a rebellion which for a time was successful, 
but it was soon put down, and Cade Avas executed. 

About this time there occurred a circumstance of a more seri- 
14 



210 HENRY VI. [U.-,2-5. 

ous nature. A pretender to tlie crown appeared in tlie person 
of Kicliard, Duke of York, descended througli the female line 
from Lionel, third son of Edward III., and poj)ular attention 
was drawn to him as the rightful heir to the throne. Henry's 
weakness, and the general unpopularity of his government, en- 
couraged the Duke of York, who was nmch beloved by the 
people because of his bravery, mildness of temper, and general 
good conduct both in public and private life. His immense 
possessions gave him vast influence, his wife was a Seville, and 
he had the support of that family, aud of the Earls of Salisbury 
and AYarwick, father and son. 

So long as no offspring followed from the marriage of Henry 
and Margaret, it was believed that York would peaceably suc- 
ceed to the throne on the king's death; but on October 13, 
1453, Margaret gave birth to a son, whose legitimacy was 
doubted, and about the same time the king became imbecile, 
which rendered him incapable of maintaining even the appear- 
ance of royalty. 

The queen and the covmcil, destitute of the king's support, 
found themselves unable to resist the York party, and they 
were obliged to yield to the toi-i-ent. They sent Somerset to 
the Tower, and appointed the Duke of York lieutenant of the 
kingdom, 1153, with powers to open and hold a session of 
Parliament. 

Henry, having recovered sufficiently in the year 1155, resumed 
his government. He immediately restored Somerset to office, 
and the alnises were renewed, of which York complained, and 
demanded reformation of the government, which being denied, 
York levied an army, and the first battle of the lioses was 
fought at St. Albans, the 22d of May, 1155. The royal army 
was beaten with great loss. Among the slain was the Duke of 
Somerset, and the king himself fell into the hands of the Duke 
of York, Avho treated him with great respect and tenderness — 
he was only obliged to comuiit the whole authority of the crown 
into the hands of his rival ! 

On the 9tli of July Parliament met. Tliey gi-anted the York- 
ists a general indemnity, and restored the protectorship to the 
duke, but at the same time renewed their oaths of fealty to 



1455-0.] HENRY VI. 211 

Ilenrj, and fixed the continuance of the protectorship to the 
majority of his son Edward, who was created Prince of Wales, 
Duke of Cornwall, Earl of Chester. 

The following year the queen, availing lierself of York's ab- 
sence, produced the king before the House of Lords, and as 
his state of health permitted him at that time to act his part 
with decency, he declared his intentions of resuming the gov- 
ernment, and of putting an end to York's authority. 

As many of the lords were annoyed at the last resumption, 
they assented to the king's proposal, and he was consequently 
declared to be reinstated in sovereign authority ; even the Duke 
of York afterward acquiesced. 

The court retired to Coventry, and invited the Duke of York 
and the Earls of Salisbury and AVarwick to attend the king's 
person ; but when on the road they were informed that designs 
were formed against their lives, and they withdrew to their 
different castles. 

In 1-158 it was agreed that all the great leaders on both sides 
should meet in London and become reconciled. Both parties 
came thither, attended by numerous retimies, and took up their 
quarters near each other for nnitual security. The major, at 
the head of five thousand men, kept a strict watch, day and 
night, in keeping peace between them, and an outward recon- 
ciliation only was procured. 

The following year a partisan quarrel between one of the 
king's retinue and one of the. Earl of Warwick's retainers ended 
in the companions on both sides taking part. The earl, sup- 
posing his life aimed at, fled, and both parties, in every county 
of England, openly made preparation for deciding the contest 
by war. 

The Earl of Salisbury, marching to join the Duke of York, 
was overtaken at Blore Heath by Lord Audley. On the 23d of 
Septembsr, 1-1.50, a battle was fought. Salisbury, obtaining a 
complete victory, reached the general rendezvous of the York- 
ists at Ludlow, where they were joined by a choice body of 
veteran troops under the Earl of Warwick, from Calais. 

The royal army approached, and a general action was every 
hour expected. Sir A. Trollop, who commanded the veterans, 



212 HENRY yi. [1460. 

deserted to tlie king, and the Yorkists were so dismayed at this 
treacliery, that they separated next day without striking a blow. 

The duke fled to Ireland ; tlie Earl of AVarwick and many of 
tlie other leaders escaped to Calais. 

After meeting with some successes at sea the following year, 
Warwick landed in Kent with some retainers, and was met by 
the primate, Lord Cobham, and other persons of distinction, 
Tney marched amidst the acclamations of the people to Lon- 
don ; the city opened its gates to him, and his troops increasing 
on every day's march, he soon found himself in a condition to 
face the royal army. The battle was fought at Northampton, 
July 10, 1-160, and was soon decided against the royalists by the 
desertion of Lord Grey, of Ruthin, to the enemy during the 
heat of action, which spread consternation among the king's 
troops. The loss was slight ; the slaughter fell chiefly on the 
gentry and nobility, and Henry was again taken prisoner. 

The duke returned from Ireland, a parliament was sum- 
moned in the king's name, and met at AVestminster the Tth of 
October, 1400. The Duke of York now demanded the thi'one, 
and both houses deliberated on the subject, and after several 
days decided, and declared that the title of the Duke of York 
was indisputable, but in consideration that Henry had enjoyed 
the crown for thirty-eight years, that he should continue to 
possess the title and dignity during the remainder of his life ; 
that the administration of the government should remain with 
Ilichard, and that he should l)e acknowledged the true and lawful 
heir to the crown. The duke acquiesced ; the king, being a 
pi'isoner, could not oppose it. 

After the defeat at Xorthampton, the queen had fled to 
Durham with her infant son, thence to Scotland ; but, soon re- 
turning, she applied to the northern barons for assistance, and 
by their aid collected an army of twenty thousand men. The 
Duke of York, -hearing of her appearance in the north, hastened 
thither with an army of five thousand men to suppress, as he 
imagined, the beginning of an insurrection, when, on his arrival 
at Wakefield, he found himself greatly outnumbered by the 
enemy. • But the duke possessed personal bravery, and thought 
he would be forever disgraced if he were to take shelter be- 



14G1.] HENRY VI. 213 

liiiid stone walls, and for a moment resign the victory to a 
woman. 

lie descended into the plain and offered battle, which was in- 
stantly accepted. The great ineqnality of numbers was snfh- 
cient to decide the victory in favor of the queen ; the duke 
liimself was slain, the Earl of Salisbury wounded, taken 
prisoner, and almost immediately beheaded, and the Yorkists 
lost over three thousand killed, wounded, and prisoners (De- 
cember 24, 1460). 

After this important victory the queen divided her army. 
She sent the smaller division, under Jasper Tudor, Earl of 
Pem1)roke, half-brother to the king, against Edward, now Duke 
of York, eldest son of Richard, the late duke. 

With the lai-ger division she marched toward London, wliere 
the Earl of Warwick had been left in command of the Yoi-kists. 
Pembroke was defeated by Edward at Mortimer Cross, in Here- 
fordshire, February 2, 1401, witli a loss of four thousand men ; 
liis army was dispersed, and he himself escaped by flight, but 
his father. Sir Owen Tudor, was taken prisoner and beheaded. 

Queen Margaret compensated this defeat by a victory she 
gained over the Earl of AYarwick on the 17th February, 14(31, 
at St. Albans, which once more restored Henry to the kee])ing 
of his friends. The queen received no great advantage from 
this victory, as Edward advanced on her from the other side, 
collected the remains of Warwick's army, and was soon in a 
condition to give her battle with a superior force. She was 
sensible of her danger, as she lay between the enemy and Lon- 
don ; she therefore found it necessary to retreat with her army 
to the north,, and Edward entered the capital amidst the accla- 
mations of the citizens. Being elated with his reception, he 
resolved no longer to confine himself within those narrow limits 
which his father had prescribed for himself, and determined to 
assume the title, and dignity of king, and to insist openly on his 
claim, and thenceforth to treat the rival party as traitors and 
rebels against his lawful authority. As the national consent, or 
the appearance of it, seemed necessary, and the assembling of 
Parliament might occasion too many delays, he ventured to 
proceed in, a less regular manner. He ordered his army to as- 



214 HENRY VI. [1461. 

semble in St. John's Fields, and gi-eat numbers of the people 
sniTounded it. 

An harangue was pronounced in favor of Edward and against 
the rival faniih', and the people were then asked whether they 
would have Henry of Lancaster for king. They unanimously 
exclaimed against that proposition. It was then demanded 
whether they would accept Edward, eldest son of Richard, the 
late Duke of York, and they all expressed their assent by loud 
and joyful acclamations. 

A large nmnl)er of bishops, noblemen, magistrates, and other 
people of distinction, were next sunmioned to Baynard Castle, 
who ratified the popular election, and, on the 5th of March, 
14:61, the new king was proclaimed in London, by the title of 
Edward IV. 

In this way ended the reign of Henry YL, a monarch who, 
while in his cradle, had been proclaimed King of France and 
England, and who began his life with more splendid prospects 
than any prince in Europe ever enjoyed. 

Henry married Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Itegniei', 
titular king of Sicily, 1415 ; was deposed JMarch 3, llrOl ; re- 
stored October 0, 1170; again deposed April, 1471. Issue: 
one son, Edward, murdered by the Duke of Gloucester, May 
21, 1471. A few days afterward Ileniy died in the Tower, 
supposed to have been murdered by Gloucester also, in the fif- 
tieth year of his age and thirty -ninth of his reign. He was 
succeeded by Edward of York. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : James I., James II., 
James HI. ; France: Charles YL, Charles YII. ; Emperors of 
the West : Sioismund, Albert II., Frederick HI. 




THE HOUSE OF YOKK. 



A.D. 1461-1485. 



The House of York, or tlie White Eose, was also descended 
from the Plantagenets. It originated with Lionel, third son 
of Edward III., wlio married Elizabeth de Burg. By her he 
had one daughter, Philippa, who married Edmund Mortimer, 
Earl of March. All the males of that house being extinct, the 
title and estate fell to the female line, in the person of Anne, 
sister of the last Earl of March. She married the Earl of Cam- 
bridge, who was beheaded in Henry V.'s reign, for treason, in 
conspiring and attempting to place the Earl of March upon the 
throne. Anne transmitted -her claim to her eldest son, Rich- 
ard, created Duke of York, who fell at the battle of Wakefield, 
December 24, 1460, and was succeeded in his dukedom by his 
eldest son, Edward, afterward Edward IV., first king of the 
House of York. 



216 EDvVARD IV. [1461. 

Edward IV.— A. D. 1461-1483. 

Born at Rouen, April 20, 1441. 

Proclaimed king, March 4, 1461. 

Crowned June 28, 14G1. 

Married, first, Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Sir John Gray. Issue : 

Edward, Prince of Wales. 

Richard, Dnke of York. 

Elizabeth, married King Henry VII. 

Cicely, married Viscount Welles. 

Anne, married Duke of Xorfolk. 

Bridget, a nun. 

Katharine, married Sir W^illiam Courtney. 

Died at Westminster, Ajiril 9, 148o. 

Edward IY. was born at lionen, the 20th of April, 1441, 
M^as proclaimed king in London, March 4, 1401, and thus there 
were two kings and two royal armies in the land. Both par- 
ties made formidable preparations for battle. The qneen's 
army in the north had been joined by great nnmbers, and she 
now connnanded sixty thousand men in Yoi'kshire. 

The king and the Earl of Warwick hastened with an army 
of forty thousand men, to check her progress; a body of York- 
ist troops, nnder Lord Eitzwalter, sent forward to secure the 
passage over the river Ayre, had been defeated with great 
slanghtei', but the post was afterwai'd recovered. 

The hostile armies met at Towton, on the 20th of March, 
1461, and a fierce and bloody battle ensued. One hundred 
thousand Englishmen wei'e drawn np in hostile array. Proc- 
lamation had been made that no quarter would be given. The 
battle lasted more than a day, was probably the bloodiest ever 
fought in England, and ended after the slaughter of thirty 
thonsand men, and the total rout of the Lancastrians, and thus 
the crown was iirmly placed on the brow of Edward, who, 
returning to London, was crowned the 2Stli of June, 1401, 

Henry and Margaret had remained in York during the ac- 
tion, but learning of the defeat of their army, and being sensi- 
ble that no place in England could now afford them shelter, they 
lied M'ith great haste into Scotland, accompanied by the Dukes 
of Exeter and Somerset. Edward did not pursue the fugitives, 
but returned to London, where he sununoued a parliament to 



1401-6] EDWARD IV. 217 

settle the government. On the meeting of that assembly on 
IS^ovember 4, 1461, it immediately i-ecognized his right to the 
throne, by hereditary descent throngh the family of Mortimer, 
and declared he was king by right from tlie, death of his fa- 
ther, who had also the same lawful title, and that he was in 
possession of the crown from the day that he assumed the 
government by the acclamations of the people. They expressed 
their abhorrence of the usurpation of the house of Lancaster, 
annulled every grant which had passed in those reigns, rein- 
stated the king in all the possessions that liad belonged to the 
crown at the pretended deposition of Richard II., and reversed 
all attainders passed in those i-eigns, particularly the attainder 
of the Earl of Cambridge, the king's grandfather, as well as 
the Earls of Salisbury and Gloucester. 

In the year 1462 Margaret sailed for France,. and sought an 
alliance with Louis, promising to deliver Calais to him if her 
family should, by his means, be restored to the throne of Eng- 
land, lie was induced to send with her a body of two thou- 
sand men-at-arms, with whom she appeared in Scotland, and 
was there joined by a numerous band of adventurers and numy 
partisans of the familj- of Lancaster. She then entered Eng- 
land, and, on the 15th of May, 1464, was met at Hexham by 
an army under Lord Montague, where the Lancastrians Avere 
completely routed, the queen, with her 3'oung son Edward, 
fleeing into a forest, whence, after a time, she escaped to Elan-' 
ders. The Duke of Somerset, Lords Roos and Ilungerfurd, 
were taken prisoners and innnediately Ijeheaded, and the king 
was carried bv some of his friends into Lancashire, where he 
remained concealed during twelve months, but was at last de- 
tected, delivered up to Edward, and thrown into the Tower, 
1466. 

The imprisonment of Henry, the expulsion of Margaret, the 
execution of all the most prominent Lancastrians and the con- 
fiscation of their estates, seemed to give full security to Edward's 
governinent, whose title by blood being now recognized by 
Parliament, and universally submitted to by the people, was no 
longer in danger of being impeached by any antagonist. In 
this prosperous situation the }oung king seemed to abandon 



0|S EDWARD IV. [1463. 

himself to a voluptuous indolence, to revels with the city-wives 
of London, and to the caresses of li'is mistress, Jane Shore. 
Tall in stature, and of singular beautj, his winning manners 
and gaj carelessness of bearing secured him a popularity which 
had been denied to nobler kings. But his indolence and gayety 
were mere veils, beneath which Edward shrouded a profound 
political ability. 

While jesting with aldermen, or dallying with his mistresses, 
or idling over the new pages from the printing-press at West- 
minster, Edward was silently laying the foundations of an ab- 
solute rule, which Henry YII. did little more than develop and 
consolidate. The almost total discontinuance of parliamentary 
life was, in itself, a revolution. Up to this moment the two 
houses had played a part which became more and more promi- 
nent in the government of the realm. 

Under the two first kings of the House of Lancaster they 
liad been summoned almost every year. Xot only had the 
right of self-taxation and initiation of laws been yielded ex- 
plicitly to the C^^mmons, but tliey had taken part in the work 
of government itself, had dii-ectcd the application of subsidies, 
and called the royal ministers to account by parliamentary im- 
peachments. Under Henry Yl. an important step in consti- 
tutional progress had been made, l)y abandoning the old form 
of presenting the requests of the Parliament in the form of 
petitions, which were subsequently moulded into statutes by the 
royal council ; the statute itself, in its final form, was now pre- 
sented for the royal assent, and the ci-own was deprived of its 
former privilege of modifying it. Isot only does this pi-ogress 
cease, l)ut the legislative activity of Parliament itself comes 
abruptly to an end. The reign of Edward lY. is the first since 
that of John in which not a single law which promoted free- 
dom, or remedied the abuses of j)Ower, was even proposed to 
Parliament, 

The necessity of summoning the two houses had, in fact, been 
removed by the enormous tide of wealth which the confiscation 
poured into the royal treasury. 

In the single bill of attainder which followed the victoi-y of 
Towton, twelve great nobles and more than one hundred 



14G3-5.] EDWARD IV. 219 

knights and squires were stripped of tlieir estates to the king's 
profit. It was said that nearly a fifth of the land had passed 
into the royal possession at one period or another of the civil 
war. 

Jaqneline of Burgundy, duehess-do wager of Bedford, had so 
far sacrificed her ambition to love, that she espoused, in second 
marriage, Sir Richard Woodville, a private gentleman, to whom 
she bore several children, and among the rest Elizabeth, who 
was remarkable for the grace and beauty of her person, as well 
as many accomplishments ; she had married Sir John Gra}' of 
Groby, by whom she had children ; her husband had been slain 
in the second battle of St. Albans, fighting on the side of Lan- 
caster, and his estate being confiscated his widow was now living 
retired with her father. The king, l)y accident, visited the house 
after a hunting party, and as the occasion appeared a favorable 
one, the young widow threw herself at the king's feet, and with 
many tears entreated him to have i)ity on her impoverished and 
distressed children. The sigiit of so nmch beauty in affliction, 
strongly affected the amorous Edward ; love stole insensibly into 
his heart, he raised her from the ground, he found his passion 
increase, and he was soon reduced, in his turn, to the posture of 
a suppliant at her feet. But the lady, either averse to dishonor- 
able love or perceiving she had hopes of obtainiug the hig'hest 
elevation, obstinately refused to gratify his passion. Irritated 
by opposition, his passion increased by his veneration for such 
honorable sentiments, when at last, beyond all bounds of reason, 
he offered to share with her his throne as well as his heart, and 
they were privately married at Grafton, 11:61:, and the secret M'as 
carefully kept for some time. In 1465 the marriage was pub- 
licly acknowledged, and her father was created Earl of Bivers, 
and invested with the office of constable for life. Her sisters 
were married to the highest nobility, and her family made other 
alliances, and received appointments which gave a general alarm 
to the nobility, and disgusted nuxny even zealous partisans of 
the House of York. 

Philip, Duke of Burgundy, was now dead ; his ricli and ex- 
tensive domains were held by Charles, his only son, whose mar- 
tial disposition acquired for him the surname of Bold. His op- 



220 EDWARD IV. run8-70. 

position to France still continued, and Edward was sure of the 
friendship of either of them for whom he should choose to 
declare himself. An alliance was made with Duke Charles, and 
Edward bestowed his sister Mari>-aret in marria«:e on him in 
1468. At the same time he concluded a league with the Duke 
of Brittany, which seemed both to increase his security, and to 
open to him the prospect of rivalling his predecessors in those 
foreign conquests, which, however short-lived and unprofitable, 
had rendered their I'eigns popular and illustrious. 

But whatever aml)itious schemes the king might have built 
on these alliances, they were soon frustrated hj intestine com- 
motions, which engrossed all his attention. 

The union of the king and Elizal)eth had displeased the pow- 
erful and hauglity- Earl of AVarwick, who had been anthorized 
to negotiate a marriage between Edward and the Princess Bona 
of Savoy, sister of the Queen of Fi-ance. He had succeeded in 
doing so, and it only required, to be ratitied by the king ; but on 
his heariug of the secret marriage he returned to England, 
inflamed with ]-age and indignation, and that nobleman was 
alhnved to depart from court full of the same ill-humor M'hicli 
he brought to it. 

Everj' incident now tended to widen the breach between the 
king and this powerful subject, and the (]ueen M'as anxious to 
draw every raven- to her own friends, and to exclude those of the 
earl, whom she considered her mortal enemy. 

An insurrection broke out in Yorkshire about the right of 
levying a thrave of corn f(>r the support of an hospital, and fif- 
teen thousand men marched to the gates of York, and on July 
26, 1469, a battle was fought at Banbury and the insurgents 
were Ijeaten. 

Another rebellion broke out in 1470 in Lincolnshire and was 
headed by Sir Bobert Welles. The king met them on the 13th 
of March, ami defeated them, taking the leaders prisoners, and 
ordered their immediate execution. 

Edward, during these troubles, had entertained su little jeal- 
ousy of the Earl of Warwick or the Duke of Clarence, that he 
sent them with commissions to levy foi'ces against the rebels, but 
these malcontents, as soon as they left the court, raised trooj)s in 



1470.] EDWARD IV^. 22i 

their own name, issued declarations against the government, 
and complained of grievances, oppressions, and bad ministers. 
The unexpected defeat of Welles disconcerted all their measures, 
and they retired into Lancashire, where thej expected to be joined 
by Lord Stanley. But as that nobleman refused to unite with 
them, and Lord Montague remained quiet in Yorkshire, they 
were obliged to disband their army, and to fly into Devonshire, 
where they embarked for Calais. 

Warwick having been denied admittance within that fortified 
town by the lieutenant-governor, one Vaucler, sailed for France, 
where he was received by Louis with the greatest demonstrations 
of regard. His present distress and the entreaties of the king, 
made him hearken to terms of accomuiodatiou, and Margaret 
being sent for from Anjou, where she resided, an agreement was, 
from connnon interest, soon concluded between them. It was 
stipulated that Warwick should espouse the cause of Henry, and 
endeavor to restore him to liberty, and re-establish him on the 
throne ; that the administration of the government, during the 
minority of young Edward, Henry's son, should be intrusted 
conjointly to the Earl of Warwick and Duke of (lareuce ; that 
Prince Edward should marry the Lady Anne, second daughter 
of Warwick, and that the crown, in case of the failure of male 
issue, in that prince, should descend to the Duke of Clarence, 
to the entire exclusion of Edward and his posterity. The mar- 
riage of Prince Edward and Anne Avas innnediately celebrated 
in Prance. After this nmtual understanding Louis prepared a 
fleet to escort tlie Earl of Warwick to England, sind gi-atited him 
a supply of men and nu:)ney. 

The Duke of Burgundy, on the other hand, enraged at War- 
wick, and anxious to support Edward, fitted out a large fleet, 
with which he guarded the channel, and he immediately warned 
his brother-in-law of the inmiinent perils to which he was ex- 
posed. But Edward, though always brave and often active, had 
little foresight or penetration, and made no suitable preparations 
against Warwick. A storm dispersed the Flemish fleet, and left 
the cliannel open to the earl, who seized the opportunity, and 
setting sail quickly landed at Dartmouth, with the Duke of 
Clarence, the Earls of Oxford and Pembroke, and a small body 



222 EDWARD IV. [14T0. 

of troops, M'liile the king was in the noi-tli snppressing an insur- 
rection whieli liad been raised by Lord Fitz-llngh, brother-in- 
law to Warwick. 

The spirit of discontent, the great popularity of Warwick, 
the zeal of the Lancastrian party, and the general instability of 
the nation, owing to the late frequent revolutions, drew such 
multitudes to his standard that in a few days his arniy num- 
bered sixty thousand men, and was continually increasing. 

Edward hastened southward to meet him. The two armies 
approached each other near Nottingham, where a decisive ac- 
tion was hourly expected. The rapidity of Warwick's progress 
had pi-evented the Duke of Clarence f i-om executing his plan of 
treachery, and the Marquis of Montague had here the opportu- 
nity of striking the lirst blow. Edward was surrounded by 
enemies in his own camp, and being advised of his danger by 
his chamberlain, Lord Hastings, who urged him to escape from 
an army where he had so many concealed enemies, had just 
time to get on horseback and hurry with a small retinue to 
Lynn, in Norfolk, where he luckily found a ship ready, on 
board of which he instantly embarked, and sailed for Holland. 
Thus, in no longer space than eleven days after his land- 
ing, the Earl of AVarwick found himself master of the king- 
dom. 

Lnmed lately after^ Edward's flight had left the kingdom at 
Warwick's disposal, that nol)leman hastened to London, and, 
taking Henry from his confinement in the Tower, into which 
he had been the chief cause of throwing him, he proclaimed 
him king with great solemnity, October U, 1470. A par- 
liament was immediately called, in the name of the king, to 
meet at Westminster ; the treaty with Margaret was here fully 
executed ; Henry was recognized as. the lawful king, but his 
incapacity for government being acknowledged, the regency 
was entrusted to Warwick and Clarence until the majority of 
Prince Edward, and in default of that prince's issue, Clarence 
was declared heir to the crown. 

The usual business of reversals went on without ojiposition. 
Every statute made during the reign of Edward was repealed, 
that prince was declared to be an usurper, he and his adherents 



1471] EDWARD IV. £23 

were attainted, and in particular Eieliard, Duke of Gloucester, 
his younger brother. 

All the attainders of the former reign were reversed, and 
every one was restoi-ed who had lost either honors or fortunes 
by his former adherence to the cause of Henry. 

The only victim of distinction who suffered was the Earl of 
Worcester, who was tried, found guilty of treason, and exe- 
cuted. All the other principal Yorkists either lied beyond the sea 
or betook themselves to sanctuaries. In London alone over two 
thousand persons saved themselves in this manner, among the 
rest Edward's queen, who was there delivered of a son named 
after his father. 

Queen Margaret, the- other rival queen, had not yet arrived 
in England, but on learning of Warwick's success, was prepar- 
ing, with Prince Edward, for her journey, but being detained 
by contrary winds, did not reach their destination until a new 
revolution had broken out, no less sudden and surprising than 
the former, throM'ing them into great misery. 

Edward, secretly assisted by the Duke of Burgundy, ecpiipped 
fourteen vessels, manned by Flemings and Dutchmen, and with 
a sum of money sailed for England. He attempted to land on 
the coast of Xorfolk, but was repulsed ; he then sailed north- 
ward and landed on March 25, 1471, at Kavenspur, in York- 
shire. 

Finding that the new magistrates, who had been appointed 
by the Earl of Warwick, kept the people everywhere from join- 
ing him, he stated, and even made oath, that he came not to 
challenge the crown, but only the inheritance of the house of 
York, which of right belonged to him, and that he did not 
intend to disturb the peace of the kingdom. 

His partisans eveiy moment tlocked to his standard, he M'as 
admitted into the city of York, and was soon in such a situ- 
ation as gave him hopes of succeeding in all his claims and 
pretensions. 

Warwick assembled an army at Leicester with the intention 
of meeting and of giving battle to the enemy, but Edward, by 
taking another road, passed him unmolested, and presented 
himself before the gates of London. Had he been refused ad- 



224. EDWARD IV. [1471. 

niittance he would have been totally undone ; but there were 
many reasons which inclined the citizens to favor him, and on 
April 11, 1-171, he was admitted, and not only made liimself 
master of that powerful city, but also of the person of Henry, 
who, destined to be the perpetual sport of fortune, thus fell 
a^aiii into the hands of his enemies. 

Edward now found himself in a condition to meet the Eaii 
of Warwick, who had gathered his forces at Barnet, in the 
neighborhood of London, and here he was deserted by his son- 
in-law, the Duke of Clarence, who left his camp with twelve 
thousand men, and during the night joined Edward. 

The following day the battle of Barnet was fought with ob- 
stinacy on both sides ; the victory remained long undecided, 
until AYarwick, his brotlier, and several of the leaders were slain, 
and the victory was secured l)y Edward, April 11-, 1471. 

The same day on which this battle was fought, Queen Mar- 
garet and her son Edward, now about eighteen years of age, 
landed at Weymouth, supported by a small body of French 
troops. When the queen received intelligence of her husband's 
captivity, and of the defeat and death of the Earl of Warwick, 
her courage quite deserted her, but being encouraged by the 
Earls of Pembroke, Devonshire, and others, she resumed her 
former spirit, aiid determined to defend to' the utmost the ruins 
of her fallen fortunes. 

She advanced through Devon, Somerset, and Gloucester, in- 
creasing her army as she went, but was at last overtaken by 
the rapid and expeditious Edward at Tewkesbury, on the 
banks of the Severn, May 4, 1471. A battle was fought, and 
the Lancastrians totally defeated ; the Earl of Devonshire and 
Lord Wenloc were killed, and the Duke of Somerset and about 
twenty other persons of distinction, having taken shelter in a 
church, were dragged out and immediately beheaded. Queen 
Margaret and her s(m were taken prisoners, and the prince was 
shortly afterward murdered. Mai'garet was imprisoned in the 
Tower, and a few days afterward King Henry expired. It was 
generally believed that he died by the hand of the Duke of 
Gloucester, May, 1471 . 

All hopes of the house of Lancaster seemed now to be ut- 



1471-8.] EDWARD IV. 225 

terly extinguished ; every legitimate prince of tliat family was 
dead ; almost every great leader of the party had perished, 
either in battle or on the scaifold. 

On the Gth of October, 1471, a parliament was simmioned, 
which ratified, as usual, all the acts of the victor, and ]'ecognized 
his legal authority. 

The king, now freed from liis enemies, gave himself up to 
pleasure and amusement, and recovered, by his gay and inoffen- 
sive course of life, that popularity which he had lost by the re- 
peated cruelties on his enemies. 

In 11:71: an alliance was formed by Edward with the Duke of 
Burgundy, by which Finance was to be divided between them, 
and in 1475 he passed over to Calais with an army of twenty 
thousand men, only to be disappointed by the duke, receiving as 
his apology that he had carried his armies to the frontiers of 
Germany. This circumstance gave great disgust to Edward, 
making him inclined to receive those advances which Louis 
continually made him for an accommodation, and on the 21)th 
of August, 1475, a truce was concluded between France and 
England, greatly to the advantage of the latter. The most 
honorable part of the treaty was the stipulation for the liberty 
of Queen Margaret. Louis paid a ransom of fifty thousand 
crowns, and that princess passed the remainder of her days in 
tranquillity until her death, in 1482. 

The Duke of Clarence, since his connection with Warwick, 
had never been able to regain the king's friendship ; he was still 
regarded as dangerous, and had the misfortune to give displea- 
sure to the queen and his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, a 
prince unrelenting and unscrupulous in the attainment of his 
ends. A combination of these powerful adversaries was formed 
against him, and it was determined to commence by attacking 
his friends. The plot succeeded ; two of his friends were tried on 
f ri-^'olous charges joined Avith an accusation of sorcery, were found 
guilty and put to death. AVhen he maintained their innocence, 
he, by the king's order, was committed to the Tower, tried before 
the House of Peers for the crime of maintaining the innocence 
of men who had been condemned in courts of justice, and of 
declaring against the iniquity of Ihe king who had given ordcjs 



226 EDWARD V. [147S-83. 

for their prosecution. The Duke of Chirence was found guihy 
hy the peers and ordered to be executed. The only favoi- 
granted him after his sentence was, to lea\'e him the choice of 
his death, and he asked to he drowned in a butt of niahnsey, a 
wine he was particularly fond of, and on Febj-uary IS, 1478, he 
was drowned in the Tower. 

Edward was remarkable alike for his military skill and 
courage, and his corrupt, luxurious life. He was rapacious, ex- 
travagant, licentious, and unscrupulous, but when he had a 
purpose to gain, could be fascinating in manner. He was in- 
nately cruel, and seemed to enjoy pei-sonally witnessing the 
execution of his prisoners ; whilst in battle his cry was, " Kill 
the nobles, and spare the commons." So thoroughly was this 
acted upon, that the ancient English nobility were almost anni- 
hilated in his reign, and the few new peers that he made did 
not long survive him. 

During the remainder of Edward's life he was sunken in in- 
dolence and pleasure. He left five daughters, one of whom, Eliz- 
abeth, was afterward married to Henry VH., and two sons — the 
ill-fated Edward and Richard. He died in the forty-second 
year of his age, and the twenty-second of his reign, on April 9, 
1483, and was succeeded by his son Edward, the Prince of Wales. 

CoNTEMPOR^ujY IluLERs. — Scotland : James HI. ; France : 
Charles YIL, Louis XL ; Emperor of the AVest : Frederick HI. 

Edward V.— A.D. 1483. 

Bom in the Sanctuary at Westminster, November 4, 1470. 

Murdered, with his brother, the Duke of York, in the Tower, June 22, 1483. 

Edward, the second king of the York branch of the house of 
Plantagenet, son ofEdward IV. and his wife Elizabeth Wood- 
ville, was born in the Sanctuary of Westminster Abbey, Xovem- 
ber 4, 1470, whither his mother had fled from the Lancastrian 
army of Queen Margaret and the Earl of Warwick. 

Young Edward, at the time of his father's death, was residing 
in the castle of Ludlow, in Wales, with a mimic court, whither 
he had been sent, that the influence of his presence might over- 
awe the Welsh, and tend t© restore the trancpiillity of the 



1481.] EDWARD V. 227 

eoiiTitrv. His person was committed to the care of tlie Earl of 
Hi vers, brother of the queen, one of the most accomplished 
noblemen in England. The queen, anxious to presei-ve that 
ascendancy over her son which slie had long maintained over 
her husband, wrote to the Earl of Rivers, that he should raise 
a body of troops in order to escort the king to London, to pro- 
tect him during his coronation, and to preserve him from falling 
into the hands of their enemies. 

The opposite faction, sensible that Edward was now of an age 
when great advantage could be made of his name and counte- 
nance, and was approaching that period of life when he would 
be legally entitled to exert in person his authority, foresaw that 
the tendency of this measure was to perpetuate their subjection 
under their rivals, and they strongly opposed a resolution Avhich 
they represented as the signal for renewing a civil war in the 
kingdom. Lord Hastings threatened to depart instantly to his 
govermnent of Calais ; the other noblemen seemed resolute to 
oppose force by force, and as the Duke of Gloucester, on pre- 
tence of pacifying the quarrel, had declared against all appear- 
ance of an armed power, which might be dangerous, and was 
unnecessary, the queen, trusting to his friendship and sincerity, 
and overawed by so violent an opposition, recalled her orders to 
her brother, and desii-ed him to bring up no greater retinue than 
should be necessary to support the state and dignity of tlie 
young king. 

The Duke of Gloucester, meanwhile, set out from Yoi-k. at- 
tended by a numerous train of the northern gentry. When he 
reached Northampton, he was joined by the Duke of Bucking- 
liam, splendidly attended, and as he heard the king was hourly 
expected, he resolved to await his arrival, under pretence of 
conducting him from thence to London. 

Earl Rivers, fearing the place would be too small to contain 
so many attendants, sent his pupil by another road to Stony 
Stratford, and came himself to I^orth-ampton to explain, and 
pay his respects to the Duke of Gloucester. 

He was received with the greatest appearance of cordiality, 
passed the evening pleasantly with the duke, and proceeded on 
the road with him next day to join the king. But as they were 



228 . EDWARD V. [1483. 

entering Stony Stratford lie was arrested, by order of Glouces- 
ter ; Sir Richard G-ray, one of the queen's sons, and Sir Thomas 
Vaughan, were also put under guard, and all the prisoners were 
immediately conducted to Pomfret Castle. 

Gloucester endeavored unsuccessfully to satisfy young Edward 
concerning the violence thus exercised upon his kindred and 
friends. 

Tlie people, however, were extremely rejoiced at this revolu- 
tion, and the duke M^as received in London on May 4, 14S3, with 
the loudest acclamations ; but the queen no sooner received in- 
telligence of her brother's imprisonment, than she foresaw that 
Gloucester's violence would not stop there, and that her own 
ruin, if not that of all her family, was tinally detei-mined on. 
She therefore tied into the Sanctuary of Westminster, with the 
Duke of Yoi-k and her five daughters, attended by the Marquis 
of Dorset, where she trusted the ecclesiastical privileges would 
not be violated. But Gloucester, anxious to have the young 
duke in his power, applied to the privy council for authority to 
take him from the Sanctuary, and through the influence of 
the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, he at last succeeded, 
and the mother delivered him up into their charge. 

The Duke of Gloucestei", being the nearest male of the royal 
family capable of exercising the government, seemed entitled 
by the customs of- the realm to the office of Protector, and the 
council, not waiting for the assembling of Parliament, made no 
scruple of investing him with that dignity, and the coronation 
was postponed until the 22d of June. 

The general prejudice entertained by the nobility against the 
queen and her kindred occasioned this precipitation and irregu- 
larity, and no one foresaw any danger to the succession, much 
less to the lives of the young princes. 

Gloucester, having so far succeeded in his plans, no longer 
hesitated in removing all obstacles that lay between him and 
the throne. The death of the Earl of Rivers, and the others 
detanied at Pomfret, was first determined, and he easily obtained 
the consent of Buckingham and Hastings to this sanguinary 
measure. He accordingly issued orders to Sir Richard Ratcliff 
to behead the prisoners. 



14S3.] EDWARD V. ' 929 

The Protector next assailed the fidehtj of Buckingham. lie 
represented that tlie execution of persons so nearly related "to 
tlie king, whom he so openly professed to love, and whose fate 
he so nuich resented, would never pass unpunished ; that all the 
actors in that scene were bound, for their own safety, to pi-event 
his future vengeance, and the only means was that he should 
be put out of the way, and the sceptre placed in the hands of 
a man of whose 'friendship the duke might be assured, and 
whose years and experience taught him to pay respect to merit, 
and to the rights of the ancient nobility ; and that the same 
necessity which had cariied them so far must justify them in 
attempting further innovations, and making a new settlement 
of the succession. For these reasons he offered Buckingham 
great private advantages, and he easily obtained his consent to 
support him in all his undertakings. 

Knowing the importance of gaining Lord Hastings to their 
side, Gloucester, by means of one Catesby, a lawyer, sounded 
liis sentiments, but found him impregnable in Ids allegiance and 
fidelity to the children of his late king, who had ever honored 
him with his friendship. He therefore determined to ruiTi 
utterly the man whom he could not engage in his usurpation. 

The youug king and his brother, the Duke of York, weie 
now captives in the Tower. 

On the 13th of June, the day when Bivers, Gray, and 
Vaughan were executed at Pomfret by the advice of Hastings, 
the Protector summoned a council in the Tower, Avhither that 
nobleman, suspecting no design against himself, repaired with- 
out hesitation. 

After indulging in familiar conversation with his councillors, 
the Protector asked them what punishment those deserved who 
had plotted against his life, who was so nearly related to the 
king, and intrusted with the administration of the govern- 
ment. Hastings replied that they merited the punishment of 
traitors. Gloucester then accused the queen and others of 
sorceries toM^ard him, by which they had acted on his body, 
showing his arm all shrivelled, and said it was reduced by their 
incantations, but the councillors knew that this deformity had 
been with him from birth. He then accused Hastings as act- 



230 EDWARD V. [1483. 

ing witli liis enemies to destroy liiiu, and on a signal from liim 
armed men rushed in, Hastings was seized, was hurried away, 
and instantly beheaded, and Lord Stanley, the Archbishop of 
York, the Bishop of Ely, and other councillors were committed 
to the Tower. 

These acts of violence, exercised against all the nearest con- 
nections of the late king, prognosticated the severest fate to 
his defenceless children. 

After the nmrder of Hastings the Protector no longer made 
a secret of his intentions to usurp the crown. 

The licentious life of Edward, who was not restrained in his 
pleasures either by honor or prudence, afforded the duke a 
pretence for declaring his marriage with the queen invalid. lie 
asserted that, before espousing the Lady Elizabeth Grey he had 
privately married Lady Eleanor Talbot, daughter of the Earl of 
Shrewsbnry. He also maintained that the act of attainder 
passed against the Duke of Clarence had virtually hicapacitated 
his children from succeexling, and these two families being set 
aside, the Protector remained the only true and legitimate heir 
of the House of York. As it would be difficult to prove the 
former nuirriage, and as the rule which excludes the heirs of 
an attainted blood from private successions was never extended 
to the crown, the Protector resolved to make use of another plea 
still more shameful and scandalous. He did not hesitate to 
malign his own mother, then alive, a princess of irreproachable 
virtue, affirming that Edward IV. and his brother, the Duke of 
(Marence, were both illegitimate ; that the duchess, his mother, 
had received different lovers into her bed, who were the fathers 
of those children ; that their resemljlance to those gallants was 
a sufficient evidence of their spurious l)irtli ; and that he, the 
Duke of Gloucester, alone, of all her sons, appeared by his 
features to be the true offspring of Richard, Duke of York. 
He openly denied the title of Edward V., who then languished 
in prison. The Duke of Buckingham and his agents, together 
with the Lord Mayor, called an assembly of the people, and the 
duke addressed them on the Protector's title to the cro\vn, his 
mnnerous virtues and good qualities, and, after nnich trouble, 
raised a body of them to acconii)any the duke to Bayard Cas- 



14S3.] RICHARD III. 23^ 

tie, where Gloucester tlieii resided. After the Pretender ap- 
peared before the mob, Buckingham told him the nation was 
resolved to have him for king. The Protector declared his 
purpose of maintaining his loyalty to his sovereign, and ex- 
horted them to adhere to the same resolution. lie M^as told 
by Buckingham the people had determined to have another 
king, and if he rejected their unanimous voice they must look 
for one wdio would be more compliant. This argument being 
too powerful to be resisted he was prevailed upon to accept the 
crown, and the following day, the 25th of June, 1483, he as- 
cended the throne. 

This ridiculous farce was soon after followed by the murder 
of Edward and his brother, the Duke of York, in the Tower. 

Pichard gave orders to Sir Pobert Brakenbury, constable 
of the Tower, to put his nephews to death, but he refused to 
have any hand in this infamous deed. 

lie soon found a ready instrument for the execution of his 
purpose in Tyrrel, his master of horse, who was sent with a 
eonnnission to receive the keys of the Tower for one night, and 
dm-ing that time watched witliout the chamber while one of his 
grooms, accompanied bj' a notorious assassin, entered the sleep- 
ing apartments of the young princes, stifled them with feather 
beds and pillows, and buried their bodies at the foot of the 
staircase. 

Edward was in his fourteenth year at the time of his sup- 
posed death, and in about the sixth month of his nominal 
reign. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : James III. ; France : 
Louis XL ; Emperor of the West, Frederick 111. 

Richard III.— A.D. 1483-1485. 

Born at Fotherintyay Castle, 1450. 

Crowned July 6, 1483. 

Married Lady Neville, widow of the Prince of Wales. Issue : 

EJwnrd, Prince of Wales •, died young. 

Fell on Bosworth field, August 22, 1485. 

PrcHARD, the last king of England of the Plantagenet line, 
was born at Fotheringay C-astle, October 2, 1450. He Avas the 



232 RICHARD III. [14S3. 

youngest son of Tiicliard, Duke of York, and Cicely Xeville, 
daughter of the Earl of Westmoreland, his father being the 
legitimate heir to the throne. 

After the death of his father, at the battle of Wakefield, 
Kichard and his brother George were sent by their mother to 
Utrecht, where they were under the protection of the Duke of 
Burgundy. AVhen his elder brother became King of England, 
as Edward IV., Ii61, Richai'd was brought home and created 
Duke of Gloucester, afterward Lord High Admiral and Chief 
Constable of England for life, was endowed with large estate^ 
from tlie spoils of war, and resided for a number of years at 
Middleham Castle, under the tutelage of his relative, the Earl 
of Warwick, against whom he fought in 1470. During the 
rebellion, which for a time restored Henry YI. to the throne, 
he fled with King Edward to Flanders, September, 1470, and 
was then attainted and outlawed by Parliament. 

When Edward returned to England, Gloucester was in his 
train, and was influential in effecting the reconciliation between 
the king and his brother, George, Duke of Clarence. He com- 
manded the vanguard of the Yorkist army at the battle of 
Earnet, April 14, 1471, l)eing in innnediate opposition to 
AVarwick, and hy his conduct he proved himself to be a skilful 
general and brave soldier, and greatly contributed to the victory. 
The same post was assigned him at tlie battle of Tewkesbury, 
twenty days latei*. In reward for his services, the king created 
him Lord High Chamberlain of England and Knight of the 
Garter, and endowed him Avith large estates, the property of 
the Kevilles. 

He sought and found the Lady Anne Neville, Warwick's 
youngest daughter, betrothed to Prince Edward of Lancaster, 
who had been concealed by her relatives, and married her 
March, 1472. 

He exerted his influence with the king to mitigate the hor- 
rors of those times, and especially on behalf of the Nevilles. 

In 1475 Gloucester accompanied Edward lY. in his invasion 
of France, and was the only Englishman of note in the army 
who was neither corrupted nor cajoled by Louis XL He in- 
herited the estates of his brother, George, Duke of Clarence, 



14S3.] RICHARD III. 233 

executed for treason, February, l-iTS. Upon tlio war breaking 
out against Scotland, he was made lieutenant-general of the 
kingdom, 1-180 ; he took possession of Berwick, marched to 
Edinburgh, and compelled the Scotch to accede to his demands. 
In 1482 he was made Warden of the Welsh Marshes, and Lord 
of Carlisle in 1183, receiving a gift of a large snm of money. 
AVhile in the north he lieard of the death of his brother, Ed- 
ward IV., when he took and imposed on his generals an oath 
of allegiance to his nephew, Edward Y. He met the Duke of 
Buckingham at Northampton, April 29, 1183, as described in 
the previous reign, and forcibly assumed the guardianship of 
the young king the following day. 

Richard ascended the throne on the 2Gth of June, 1183 ; he 
was crowned, with his queen, at Westminster on the 6tli of 
July following, and again at York on the 8th of September, 
and was soon suspected of having caused the nnirder of his 
nephews, the king and the Duke of York, 

The tirst acts of Richard's administration were to bestow re- 
wards on those who assisted him in usurping the crown, and to 
gain by favors those whom he thought were best able to support 
his future government. Thomas, Lord Howard, was made 
Duke of Norfolk ; Sir Thomas Howard, liis son, Earl of Sur- 
rey ; Lord Lovel, a viscount ; even Lord Stanley was set at 
liberty and made Steward of the Household. But the person 
who, both from the greatness of his services and the power and 
splendor of his family, was best entitled to favors under the 
new government was the Duke of Buckingham, and Richard 
seemed determined to spare no pains or bounty in securing him 
to his interests. Buckingham embraced the present opportu- 
nity, and claimed the restitution of that pai-t of the Hereford 
estate that had been escheated to the crown from the Duke of 
Lancaster, as well as the office of Lord High Constable of Eng- 
land, which liad long continued in that family by inheritance, 
which were readily granted by the king, and was probably the 
price stipulated for his assistance in promoting the usurpation. 
Many other dignities and honors were conferred npon him, and 
the king thought himself sure of preserving the tidelity of the 
man whose interests seemed so closely connected with those of 



234 RICHARD III. [1483 

tlie present government. But it was impossible that friendship 
could long remain inviolate between two men of such corrupt 
minds as Richard and the Duke of Buckingham. It was not 
generally known what was the first cause of discontent between 
them. Richard was sensible of the danger which might ensue 
from conferring such immense estates and great power on a 
man of such turbulent disposition, or perhaps he refused some 
other demands made by Buckingham. However this may be, 
it is certain that soon after Richard's accession the duke began 
to form a conspiracy against the king, and attempted to over- 
throw him whom he had so zealously assisted to seize the 
throne. Never was there in any country an usurpation more 
flagrant than that of Richard's, or more repugnant to every 
principle of justice and public interest. His claim was alto- 
gether founded on impudent allegations, never attempted to be 
proved, some of them incapable of proof, and all of them im- 
plying scandalous reflections on his own family and those with 
whom he was the most nearly connected. 

His title was never acknowledged by any national assembly, 
scarcely even by the people to whom he appealed. To endure 
such a ])loody usui'per seemed to draw disgrace u|)on the nation 
and to be attended with danger to every individual who was 
distinguished by birth, merit, or services. Such became the 
general voice of the people, aiul all parties were united in the 
same sentiments. The Lancastrians, so long oppressed, and of 
late so much discredited, felt their blasted hopes again revive, 
and waited the consequences of those extraordinary events. 

The Duke of Buckingham, whose family had been devoted to 
that interest, and who by his mother was allied to the house of 
Lancaster, was easily induced to espouse the cause of that party, 
and to endeavor to restore it to its ancient superiority. 

The Bishop of Ely, a zealous Lancastrian, Avhom Richard had 
imprisoned, encouraged these sentiments, and by his advice the 
duke cast his eyes toward the young Earl of Richmond as the 
only person who could free the nation from the tyranny of the 
present usurper. 

Llenry, Earl of Riclnnond, was at this time detained in a 
Ivind of honorable custody by the Duke of Britanny, and his 



1483.] 



RICHARD III. Qc;? 



descent, wliicli seemed to give liini some pretensions to tlic 
crown, had been a great object of jealousy, both in the bite and 
present reign. As all the descendants of the house of York 
were either women or minors, it was suggested by the Bishop 
of Ely, and readily assented to, that the only means of over- 
turning the present usurpation was to unite the opposite fac- 
tions by contracting a marriage between the Earl of Richmond 
and the Princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., 
and thereby blend together the opposite pretensions of tlieir 
families. 

In consequence of these views, the prelate, by means of Kogi- 
nald Bray, steward to the Countess of Richmond, first opened 
the project of the union to that lady, and the plan appeared so. 
advantageous to her son, and at the same time so likely to suc- 
ceed, that it admitted of no hesitation. 

Dr. Lewis, a physician wlio had access to the queen-dowager 
in her sanctuary, carried the proposals to her, and found that 
revenge for tlie murder of her brother, and of her three sons, 
apprehensions for her surviving family, and the indignation 
against her confinement, easily overcame all her prejudices 
against the house of Lancaster, and procured her approbation 
of a marriage to which age and birth seemed to invite them. 
She secretly borrowed a sum of money in the city, sent it over 
to Richmond, required his oath to celebrate the marriage as 
soon as he should arrive in England, advised him to levy as 
many foreign troops as possible, and promised to join him, on 
his first appearance, with all the friends and partisans of the 
family. 

But it was impossible that so extensive a conspiracy could be 
conducted . so as to escape the vigilant eye of Richard, and he 
soon received intelligence that his enemies, headed by the Duke 
of Buckingham, M^ere forming a conspiracy against him. lie 
immediately put himself in a position of defence, by levying 
troops in the north, and he summoned the duke to appear at 
court, in such terms as seemed to promise him a renewal of their 
former friendship. But that nobleman, well acquainted with 
the treachery of Richard, replied only by taking arms in Wales, 
and giving the signal to his accomplices for a general insurrec- 



236 KICHARD III. [14S3-4. 

tion in all parts of the conntiy. Unfortnnatel}', at that time, 
from incessant rains and severe storms, the Severn and other 
rivers swelled to an extent never before known in the mem- 
ory of man, which rendered them impassable, and prevented 
Buckingham from marching to join his associates. The AVelsh 
who composed his army, partly from superstition at this extra- 
ordinary event, and partly distressed for want of food, owing to 
tlie floods, deserted, and Buckingham, finding himself in this 
predicament, put on a disguise and hid himself in the" house of 
an old servant of his family, but being discovered, was taken to 
the king at Salisbury, and instantly executed, IS^ovember 2 
1483. The other 'conspirators, hearing of the Duke of Bucking- 
ham's misfortune, immediately dispersed. The Earl of Bich- 
mond, in concert with his friends, had sailed from St. Malo with 
a body of five thousand men, but meeting contrary winds did 
not arrive on the coast of England until after the dispersion of 
his friends, and was ol)liged to return to Brittany. 

The king, everywhere triumphant, and fortified by this nn- 
successful attempt to dethrone him, ventured at last to sunmion 
a parliament, which met on January 23, 1484. His enemies 
being now at his feet, had no clioice left, Init were constrained 
to recognize his authority, and to acknowledge his right to the 
crown. His only son, Edward, then in his twelfth year, was 
created Prince of Wales ; the duties of tonnage and poundage 
were granted to the king for life, and, to reconcile the people to 
his government, some popular laws were passed. 

On April 9, 1484, Edward, Pi-ince of Wales, died, and shortly 
afterward Queen Anne, it is said, was poisoned by her husband. 

Bichard knew that the Earl of Riclimond would never be for- 
midable only from his projected marriage with the Princess 
Elizabeth, the true heir to the crown ; he therefore determined 
to procure a papal dispensation, and to marry that princess, his 
own niece, and thus to unite in his own family their contending 
titles. 

The queen-dowager, eager to recover her lost authority, did 
not decline this alliance, or show any horror at marrying her 
<laughtei- to the murderer of her thi-ee sons and brother, and 
she even joined so far her interests with those of the usurper, 



14S4-5.] RICHARD III. 237 

that slie wrote to all her followers desiring them to withdraw 
from the Earl of Richmond, an injmy which the earl could 
never afterward forgive. Eichard flattered himself that the 
nation, seeing all danger of a disputed succession removed, would 
acquiesce in his government, and forgive all the crimes which 
he had committed in paving the way to the throne. 

But the crimes of Richard were so horrid, so revolting to 
humanity, tliat the natural sentiments of men, without regard 
to politics or party, were sufficient to render his governnjent 
unstable, and every person of probity and honor was earnest 
to prevent the sceptre from being longer polluted by the bloody 
and faithless hand which held it. 

All the exiles flocked to the Earl of Richmond in Brittany, 
and exhorted him to hasten his attempt for a new invasion, and 
to pre^'ent the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth, which must 
prove fatal to all his hopes. 

The earl, sensible of the urgent necessity, but dreading the 
treachery of Peter Laudais, who had entered into an agreement 
with Richard for betraying him, was obliged to look to his 
present safety, and he made his escape to the court of France. 
Charles VIII., who had now succeeded to the throne, gave him 
countenance and protection, and assisted him in his enterprise. 
He set sail from Ilarfleur, in Kormandy, on August 1, 1-185, 
with a small army of two thousand men, and after a voyage of 
six days arrived at Milford Haven, in Wales, where he landed 
without opposition, hoping the Welsh would regard him as their 
countryman. 

Richard, who knew not fi*om what quarter he might expect 
the enemy, had taken post at Nottingham, in the centre of the 
kingdom, and having given commissions to different p( rsons in 
the several counties to oppose the enemy, pui-posed, on the first 
alarm, to fly personally to the place exposed to danger. 

But tlie danger to which Richard was chiefl}' exposed pro- 
ceeded not so much from the zeal of his open enemies as from 
the infidelity of his pretended friends. Scarcely any nobleman 
of distinction was sincerely attached to his cause, except the 
Duke of Noi-folk ; all those who feigned the most loyalty Avere 
only watching for an opportunity to betray and desert him. 



238 RICHARD III. [1485. 

But the persons of wliom he entertained the greatest suspicion 
M'ere Lord Stanley and his brother Sir William, whose connec- 
tions with the family of Richmond were never entirely for- 
gotten. When he empowered Lord Stanley to levy forces, he 
I'etained his eldest son. Lord Strange, as a pledge for his fidelity ; 
and that nobleman was, on his account, obliged to employ great 
caution in his proceedings. 

lie raised a powerful army of his friends and retainers, but 
without openly declaring himself, and although Henry had re- 
ceived secret assurances of his friendly intentions, the armies on 
both sides knew not what to infer from his equivocal behavior. 

The two armies at last approached each other at Bosworth, 
near Leicester, August. 22, 14:85 — Henry at the head of six 
tiiousand men, Richard with an army of double that number — 
and a decisive action was every hour expected between them. 

Stanley, who commanded seven thousand men, took care to 
post himself at Atherstone, not far from the hostile camps, and 
he made such a disposition of his men as enabled him, on occasion, 
to join either party. Richard had too much sagacity not to dis- 
cover his intentions from these movements, but he kept the secret 
from his own men, for fear of discouraging them. He took 
not innnediate revenge on Stanley's son, as some of his cour- 
tiers advised, because he hoped that so valuable a pledge M'ould 
iiKhice the father to prolong still further his ambiguous con- 
duct, and he hastened to decide, by arms, the cpiarrel with his 
competitor, being certain that a victory over Richmond would 
enaljle him to take ample revenge on all his enemies, ojDen and 
concealed. 

Soon after the battle began Lord Stanley appeared in the 
field, and declared for the Earl of Richmond. 

This measure had a considerable effect on both armies. It 
inspired unusual courage into Richmond's soldiers ; it threw 
Richard's into dismay and confusion. The intrepid tyrant, sen- 
sible of his desperate situation, cast his eyes around the field, 
and observing 4iis rival at no great distance, he drove against 
him with fury, in hope that either Richmond's death or his 
own would decide the victory' between them. He killed with his 
own hand Sir William Brandon, standard-bearer to the earl ; 



1485] RICHARD III. . 239 

he dismounted Sir John Clienev ; he was now within reach of 
Kichniond himself, who declined not the combat, when Sir 
"William Stanley, breaking in with his troops, snrronnded Rich- 
ard, who, lighting bravely to the last moment, was over- 
whelmed by numbers and perished by a fate too mild and 
honorable for his multiplied enormities. Plis men everywhere 
sought for safety by flight. 

The loss of Richard's army was over four thousand slain, 
besides the Duke of ^Norfolk and other leading noblemen. 

His body was found covered l)y his dead enemies, and buried 
by the nuns of Leicester in their church there. 

Thus died Richard, the last of the Plantagenets, in the 
thirty-fifth year of his age, and the second year of his reign. 
Leaving no male issue, he yvas succeeded by Henry, Earl of 
Richmond, first of the Tudors. 

Contemporary Rltlers.^^ — Scotland : James IH. ; France : 
Louis XL, Charles YHI. ; Emperor of the West, Frederick IH. 



The reign of the house of Plantagenet expired witli 
Richard HL, on Bosworth Field. The change of dynasty forms 
of itself no historical epoch ; but in a limited or constitutional 
monarchy this change is generally accompanied by some revo- 
lution in the state, which gives it the character of a true his- 
torical era. 

The reigns of Henry YIL and his successors of the House 
of Tudor bear a distinct character from those of the Plantage- 
net princes. The exhaustion of the kingdom through the pro- 
tracted wars of the Roses, and the almost entire annihilation 
of the greater English nobility, enabled the Tudors to rule with 
a despotism unknown to their predecessors. 

The period of the Plantagenets forms, on the whole, one of 
the most important and interesting epochs of English history. 
Li it were established all those institutions by whfch our liber- 
ties are secured. The leading political feature which it pre- 
sents is the gradual development of the English constitution 
out of feudalism. The first ostensible act wdiich marks our re- 



2^0 RICHARD III. 

generated nationality is the Great Charter, wrung from the 
pusiHaninions and tyrannical John. '' Fr(.)ni this era," says 
Mr. Ilallam, " a new soul was infused into the people of Eng- 
land. Her liberties, at the best long in abeyance, became a 
tangible possession, and those indefinite aspirations for the 
laws of Edward the Confessor were changed into a steady re- 
gard for the Great Charter." 

In the subsequent struggles for our liberties, Magna Charta 
was repeatedly appealed to as their foundation, and repeatedly 
confirmed by the acts of different sovereigns. The weak and 
long reign of John's successor, Henry III., served to foster the 
infancy of English freedom. It appears from the writings of 
Bractou, who filled the office of a judge, toward the conclusion 
of that reign, that the royal prerogative was even in those early 
days defined and limited by law. Not only was the king con- 
sidered by that writer as subject to the law, but also to his 
court of earls and barons, who, indeed, before the existence 
of Parliament, were the law-makers. 

The establishment of the last-named great council of the 
nation forms, in a constitutional point of view, the chief glory 
of the Plantagenet era. 

From the constitution we naturally turn our view to those 
who were its subjects. As early, at least, as the reign of Henry 
III., the legal equality of all freemen below the rank of the 
peerage appears to have been completely established. The 
civil rights of individuals were protected by that venerable 
body of ancient customs, which, under the name of the com- 
mon law, still obtains in our courts of justice. Its origin is 
lost in the obscurity of remote antiquity. A very small por- 
tion of it may be traced to the Saxon times ; but the greater 
part must have sprung up since the conquest, for we find the 
pecuniary penalties which marked the Saxon legislation ex- 
changed in criminal cases for capital punishment. 

The law was administered under the Plantagenets by three 
courts, which still exist : the King's Bench, the Common 
Pleas, and the Exchequer, the origin of which has been nar- 
rated in the history of the Anglo-Norman constitution. 

It is ditficult to trace the steps by which villeinage was 



RICHARD III. 241 

gradually mitigated under the Plantagenets ; but, on the whole, 
it is certain that at the termination of that dynasty it had al- 
most entirely disappeared. Tenants in villeinage were grad- 
ually transformed into copyholders. Villeins bound to per- 
sonal service escaped to distant parts of the country, where 
they could not be easily traced and reclaimed, and entered into 
free and voluntary service under new masters. Others hid 
themselves in towns, where a residence for a year made them 
free by law ; something nnist also be attributed to manumis- 
sions. The influence of the church was exerted in behalf of 
this degraded class, and the repentant lord was exhorted by his 
spiritual ^adviser to give freedom to his fellow-Christians. 

As 23ublic opinion became more enlightened and humane, the 
courts of law leaned to the side of the oppressed peasantry in 
all suits in which their rights were concerned. In the reign of 
Edward III. regular statutes were framed for the protection of 
artisans and huslmndmen. 

The popular insurrection in the time of Richard II. betrays 
an advance in the condition of the lower classes ; and though 
it shows a great amount of villeinage, discovers, at the same 
time, a vast extension of freedom. 

With regard to the general progi-ess of the nation, we per- 
ceive, under the rule of the Plantagenets, a notable increase in 
its wealth and intelligence, as well as in its freedom. 

The woollen manufactures were established in various parts 
of England, aud began to supply foreign nations. In the reign 
of Edward III. the English were remarkable for their excel- 
lence in the arts of peace as well as war. A rich literatui'e liad 
been produced, adorned with the names of Chaucer, Wickliffe, 
and Mandeville ; while in matters of religion the principles of 
the Reformation M'ere already developed and promulgated. As- 
sisted by the invention of printing, which was introduced into 
England in the reign of Edward IV., this progress might have 
gone on to the most happy results had not certain events oc- 
curred to retard it. Henry IV., in order to support his usurpa- 
tion to the crown, found it expedient to court the Established 
Church, and to crush the Reformation of Wickliffe, which had 
also compromised itself by the excesses of some of its followers. 
16 



242 RICHARD in. 

The wars of Ilenry V. diverted the attention of the English 
from domestic to foreign affairs ; while the civil distm'banees 
which ensued under Henry YI., being concerned merely about 
a dynasty, and involving not, like those under the Stuarts, any 
great public principle, served only to damp the genius and 
energy of the nation, and disposed it to bend under the tyranny 
of its subsequent monarchs. 

The population, at the end of the reign of the Plantagenets, 
probably amounted to three millions. 




THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 



A.D. 1485-1603. 



Catherine of France, widow of Hemy Y., second king of 
England of tlie Lancastrian branch of the Plantagenet hne, 
married, in the year 1423, Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, 
of ancient lineage but small estate, who had been attached to 
the late king's suite. 

She bore him two sons, Edmund and Jasper, created (by their 
half-brother King Jlenry YI.), the former Earl of Richmond, 
and latter Earl of Pembroke. 

In the year 1455 the Earl of Riclimond married Margaret 
Beaufort, daughter of the Duke of Somerset, and great-grand- 
danghter of John of Gaunt and Catlierine Swynford, whose off- 
spring had been legitimized by the Pope, the king, and Parlia- 
ment. Margaret bore him one son, Henry, born the 26th of 
J uly, 1450, who became Earl of Richmond three months after- 
ward, on the death of his father, and in the year 1485 became 
the first king of the Tudor line in England as Henry YII. 



244 HENRY VII. [1485. 

Henry VII.— A. D. 1485-1505. 

Bom at Pembroke Castle, July 20, 1456. 

Proclaimed king- ou the battle- field, by Sir William Stanley, Augaist 23, 1485. 

Crowned, October 30, 1485. 

Married the Princess Elizabeth Plantagenet, daughter and heiress of King 
Edward IV. Issue : 

Arthur, Prince of Wales ; married Catherine of Aragon ; died 1502. 

Henry, afterward Henry VIII. 

Edmund, Duke of Somerset. 

Margaret, married James IV. , King of Scotland ; mother of James V. , who 
married Magdalene, daughter of Francis I. , King of France. James mar- 
ried, second, Mary, daughter of Duke of Guise. Issue : 
Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Mary, married Louis XII. of France. 

Eleanor, married Earl of Cumberland. 

Henry, tlie founder of the Tudor dynasty of English kings, 
son of the Earl of Richmond and Margaret Beaufort, his wife, 
was born at Pembroke Castle, South Wales, July 26, 1456, 
where he resided for some years, even after that place had 
been granted to the Herberts, the chief of whom had charge of 
him. 

He was attainted soon after, when the crown passed to th.e 
house of York. His education was conducted by his mother, a 
woman of piety and learning, and he grew up a thoughtful, 
serious boj", nnicli inclined to religious studies. AVhen the 
house of Lancaster was restored in 1470, young Richmond was 
placed at Eton College, where he was seen by Henry YL, who 
predicted that he would be king. Tlie next year saw the return 
of Edward lY. and the death of Henry YL and his only son, 
the Prince of Wales, when Riclmiond became chief of the 
Lancastrian party. 

By letters patent from Richard II., in 1397, granted to the 
Duke of Lancaster, the Beauforts were to be admitted to all 
honors and dignities, which placed them in the line of succes- 
sion to the cr<\wn. But when Hem-y lY. ratified the act of 
Richard, he added after the words " all honors and dignities " 
the words " except to the royal dignity." 

Thus the Beauforts were not from the first excluded from 
the claim to the throne, and Henry of Richmond had plausible 



1485] HENRY VII. 245 

ground for asserting that lie was tlie lineal heir of John of 
Gaunt, and head of the house of Lancaster. 

Henry was sent to Pembroke Castle after the triumph of the 
Yorkists, and going to Tenbv, sailed thence to France. Land- 
ing in Britanny, he was seized by the duke of that country, who 
lield him a prisoner for many years, refusing to surrender him 
to Edward IV. 

In 1484, when the usurpation of Richard HI. had caused 
much discontent in England, Henry was recognized as chief by 
all parties opposeil to the government, and a marriage was ar- 
ranged between him and the Princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
of Edward lY. 

The Duke of Britanny liberated him, and with a small force 
he sailed for England. He was unsuccessful, his fleet was dis- 
persed, and his party in England crushed for a time by Pichard. 
After a variety of romantic adventures, he raised a large force, 
and sailed from Harfleur in the beginning of August, 1485, and 
landed in Milford Haven. 

The victory which he gained at Bosworth was entirely de- 
cisive, resulting in the total rout and dispersion of the royal 
army, and the death of the king himself. 

Joy for this great success suddenly prompted the soldiers on 
the field of battle to bestow on their victorious general the 
appellation of king, which he had not hitherto assumed, and 
the acclamations of " Long live Llenry the Seventh ! " by a 
natural and unpremeditated movement, resounded from all 
quarters. To bestow some appearance of formality on this 
species of military election, Sir William Stanley brought a 
crown, or ornament which Pichard had worn in battle, which 
he had found among the spoils, and placed it upon the head of 
the victor. Llenry, Avithout hesitation, accepted the gift ten- 
dered him, and chose the part which his ambition suggested, 
and to which he seemed to be invited by his present success. 

His journey to London soon after the battle, August 22, 
1485, had more the appearance of an established monarch 
making a peaceable progress through his dominions, than of a 
prince who liad opened his way to the throne by force of 
arms. The acclamations of the people were everywhere loud 



246 HENRY VII. [1485-6. 

and no less sincere and liearty, and the nation presaged great 
security from the new scene which opened befoi'e them. 

Tlie major and guilds of London received him as he ap- 
proached the city, and the citizens were zealous in their ex- 
pressions of satisfaction. 

Henry's first act, on his arrival, was to rencM^ before the 
council and principal nobility the promise which he had given 
to celebrate his marriage with the Princess Elizabeth ; but, 
though bound by honor as well as by interest to complete this 
alliance, he was resolved to postpone it until the ceremony of 
his coronation should be finished, and till his title should be 
recognized by Parliament. Being anxious to support his per- 
sonal and hereditary right to the throne, he dreaded that a 
preceding marriage with Elizabeth should imply a participation 
of sovereignty in her, and raise doubts of his own title by the 
House of Lancaster. 

Henry was crowned at Westminster on October 30, 1485, by 
Cardinal Buuchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, at which time 
he created his uncle, Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, to be Duke of 
Bedford ; Thomas, Lord Stanley, to be Earl of Derby, and Ed- 
ward Courtney, Earl of Devonshire, lie also established, for 
security of liis person, as well as pomp, a band of fifty archers, 
who were called yeomen of the guard, and declared the institu- 
tion to be perpetual. On the Tth of November following the 
parliament assembled at Westminster. The majority imme- 
diately appeared to be devoted partisans of the new king. It 
was voted and agreed that the inheritance of the crown should 
rest, remain, and abide in the king, and the succession secured 
to the heirs of his body. Parliament next reversed the attain- 
ders which had passed against the partisans of the House of 
Lancaster, and, at the king's instigation, passed an act of attain- 
der against the late king, the Duke of Norfolk, Earl of Surrey, 
Viscount Level, Lords Zouche and Ferrars, and others who had 
fought on Richard's side at Bosworth. 

On January 18, 1480, Henry married Elizabeth, eldest 
daughter of Edward IV. This was celebrated with gi'eater 
appearance of joy tlian either his first entry into the city or 
his coronation. Henry noticed, with much displeasure, this 



1486-7.] HENRY VII. 247 

general favor sliown to tlie House of York. Tlie suspicions 
which arose from it disturbed his whole reign, bred ill-feeling 
toward his queen, and poisoned all his domestic enjoyments. 
Though virtuous, amiable, and confiding, she never met with a 
proper return of affection, and the malignant ideas of faction 
still in his sullen mind prevailed over all the sentiments of con- 
jugal tenderness. 

An insurrection broke out in 1486, headed by Yiscount 
Lovel, the Staffords, and some other Yorkist families, but was 
soon suppressed, and some of the principal leaders were exe- 
cuted. On the 20th of September the queen gave birth to a son, 
who was named Arthur, in memory of the famous English king 
of that name, from whom it was pretended the family of Tudor 
derived its descent. 

Henry's government was becoming unpopular, chiefly owing 
to his prejudices against the House of York, which M'as gener- 
ally beloved by the nation, and which, for that very reason, be- 
came every day more especially the object of his hatred and 
jealousy. Not only a preference on all occasions was given to 
the Lancastrians, but many of the opposite party were treated 
with the greatest severity, and had been deprived of their 
property by acts of attainder. The effects of his unpopular 
government soon appeared by incidents of an extraordinary 
nature. 

There lived in Oxford a priest, one Richard Simon, who pos- 
sessed some enterprise, and who determined to disturb Henry's 
government. For this purpose he raised a pretender to the 
crown in the person of a baker's son, named Lambert Simnel, 
a lad of fifteen years of age, Mdiom he represented to be the 
Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clajence, escaped from 
prison, but knowing the impostor could not bear a close inspec- 
tion, he therefore determined to open the campaign in L-eland. 
That island was zealously attached to the House of Yoik, and 
had an affectionate regard to the memory of Clarence, who had 
been their Lieutenant. 

No sooner did Sinmel present himself to the deputy, the Earl 
of Kildare, in Dublin, and claim his protection, as the unfor- 
tunate Warwick, than that credulous nobleman espoused his 



248 HENRY VII. [US7. 

cause. The people, with one consent, tendered their allegiance 
to Sininel as the true Plantagenet, led hiui to the Castle of 
Dublin, and proclaimed him king, as Edward A^. The whole 
island followed the example, and not a sword was drawn in 
Henry's quarrel (14-87). 

When this intelligence reached the king it gave him great 
trouble. He determined immediate^ to face his enemies, but 
feared to leave England, where he suspected the conspiracy 
originated. 

He immediately called his ministers and councillors together, 
and laid plans for a vigorous defence of his authority, and the 
suppression of his enemies. 

The first event which followed these deliberations was the 
seizure of the queen-dowager, the forfeiture of all her lands 
and revenues, and her close confinement in a nunnery. The 
next measure was, that the Earl of Warwick should be taken 
from the Tower, be led in procession through the streets of Lon- 
don, so that the people should be convinced of the absurd im- 
posture of Simnel. The expedient had its effect in England, 
but in Ireland the people still persisted in their revolt. Mar- 
garet, widow of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, hearing 
of the malignant jealousy entertained by Henry against her 
family, sent a body of two thousand veteran Germans, under 
command of Martin Swartz, a brave and experienced officer, to 
join Simnel in Ireland. The countenance given by this accession 
of force raised the courage of the Irish, they invaded England, 
landing at Fondrey, in Lancashire, and advanced on Coventry, 
and, on June 6, 1487, niet the ai'my of the king at Stoke. 
Here a severe battle was fought ; the rebels were beaten, and 
Simnel and his tutor taken prisoners. 

Simnel was too contemptible to be an object either of appre- 
hension or resentment to Henry. 

He was pardoned and made a turnspit in the king's kitchen, 
and was afterward advanced to the rank of a falconer. 

Llenry had now leisure to revenge himself on his enemies. A 
strict inquiry was made after those who had assisted or favoi'ed 
the rebels, and heavy fines were levied on the delinquents, the 
proceedings being quite arbitrary. After the king had satisfied 



MS7-01.] HENRY VII. 249 

liis resentment, lie determined to gratify liis people in a point 
wliieli, though a mere ceremony, was ardently desired by them. 

The (pieen had been married two years, but had not yet been 
crowned, which had given great discontent ; so, on November 
25, l-iST, tlie ceremony was performed, and to show a disposi- 
tion still more gracious, Henry restored to liberty tlie Marquis 
of Doi'set, who had been able to clear himself of all the suspi- 
cions entertained against him. 

In the year 14S8, the people of Durham and York, always 
discontented with Henry's government, resisted the payment of 
taxes, flew to arms, attacked the Earl of jSTorthumberland in his 
house, and put him to death ; having incurred such deep guilt, 
their mutinous humors prompted them to declare against the 
king himself. An army was collected by the king, and under 
the Earl of Surrey marched against the rebels, who were quickly 
su]3pressed, their leaders taken prisoners, and soon afterward 
executed. 

On July 7, 1491, on pretence of a Erencli war, Henry issued 
a commission for levying a "benevolence" on the people, a 
species of taxation which had been abolished by a recent law of 
Eichard HI. This oppression (for such it really was) fell chiefly 
on the commercial part of the nation. 

Parliament met on October 27th following, and, inflamed by 
the idea of' subduing France, and enriching themselves by the 
spoils of that nation, they gave in to the wishes of the king, 
and voted the supplies demanded of them. 

The nobility were universally seized with a desire for military 
glory, and dreamed of no less than carrying their banners to the 
gates of Paris, and putting the crown of France on the head of 
their sovereign. 

Henry crossed the sea, and arrived at Calais on October 6, 1491, 
with an army of forty thousand men, under the conmiand of 
the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Oxford. He immediately 
marched into the enemy's country, and laid siege to Boulogne, 
but owing to disappointments in assistance from Maximilian, 
King of the Pomans^ and the King of Spain, Henry was ii> 
duced to make peace with the French king, who agreed to pay 
to liiui tlje sum of seven hundred and forty -five thousand crowns, 



250 HENRY VII. [1492. 

partly as a reiniljursemeiit of the sums advanced to Brittany, 
partly as arrears of the pension due to Edward IV., and he 
stipulated a yearly pension to Henry, and his heirs, of twenty- 
five thousand crowns (l-ii)2). Thus Henry made profit on his 
subjects for the wai", and upon his enemies for the peace. And 
the people agreed that he had fulfilled his promise, when he 
said to the Parliament that he would make the war maintain 
itself. The Duchess of Burgundy, still full of resentmeut for 
the ruin of her family and its partisans, rather irritated than 
discouraged by the ill-success of her past enterprise, was de- 
termined to at least disturb the government which she found so 
difficult to destroy. By means of her agents, she propagated 
the story that her nephew, Bichard Plantagenet, Duke of York, 
had escaped f j-om the Tower, when his elder brother, the young 
king, was murdered, and that he still lay somewhere concealed. 
Finding this rumor greedily received by the people, she began 
looking about for some young man suitable to personate that 
unfortunate prince. There was in the reign of Edward TV. one 
Warbeck, a renegade Jew, resident of London, who liad there a 
son born to him, and who had obtained tlie king's favor ; it was 
by some believed that Edward, among his amorous adventures, 
had a secret connection with AYai-beck's wife, and people thus 
accounted for the reseml^lance, which Avas afterward remarked, 
between young Berkin and that monarch. Some years after 
the birth of this son, Warbeck moved to Tourney, and thence, 
from place to place, and difficult to be traced by the most dili- 
gent incpiiry. But at last, becoming known to some of the 
emissaries of the Duchess Margaret, who, struck with the con- 
currence of so many circumstan(;es, desired to be made acquaint- 
ed ^^'ith the man so suitable for her purpose. She found him 
to exceed her most sanguine expectations. The lessons neces- 
sary to be taught him, in order to liis personating the Duke of 
York, were soon learned by a youth of such quick penetration ; 
but as the time was not then favorable foi- the enterprise, Mar- 
garet, in order to conceal him, sent him under care of Lady 
Brampton into Portugal, where he remained a year, unknown 
to all the world. 

He subsequently landed at Cork and assumed the name of 



1493.] HENRY VII. 251 

Ricliard Plantagenet. The news soon readied France, and 
as it was before peace had been made with England, Charles, 
prompted by the Duchess of Burgundy, sent him an invitation 
to visit Paris (where he was received with all the marks of re- 
gard due to the Duke of York), settled on him a handsome pen- 
sion, assigned him magnificent lodgings, and gave him a guard 
for his person. From France the credulity spread into England, 
and above a hundred gentlemen came to Paris to offer him their 
services. 

When peace was concluded between France and England, 
Henry applied to Charles to have AYarbeck delivered into his 
hands ; but the king declined to betray a young man, of what- 
ever birth, whom he had invited into his kingdom, and would 
agree only to dismiss him. The pretended Richard retired to 
Burgundy and craved the assistance and protection of the 
duchess, laying before her all the proofs of his birth. The 
princess affected ignorance" of his pretensions, even put on the 
appearance of distrust, put many questions to him, affected 
astonishment at his answers, and at last, after long and severe 
scrutiny, burst out into joy and admiration at his wonderful de- 
liverance, embraced him as her nephew, the true image of her 
brother, the sole heir of the Plantagenets, and the legitimate 
heir to the throne. She' immediately assigned him handsome 
lodgings suitable to his birth, and gave him a guard of thirty 
halberdiers, and on all occasions honored him with the name of 
the White Rose of England (1403). 

It was not the populace alone of England that gave credit to 
Warbeck's pretensions. 

Men of the highest rank, disgusted with Henry's government, 
began to turn their eyes toward the new claimant, and some 
entered into correspondence M'ith him. Even Sir William 
Stanley', Lord Chanil)erlain, M-ho had been instrumental in rais- 
ing Henry to the throne, entered into the project of revolt in 
favor of his enemy. The king was informed of all these par- 
ticulars, and proceeded deliberately in counter- working the pro- 
jects of his enemies. 

His first object was to ascertain the death of the real Duke 
of York, and to confirm the opinion that had always prevailed 



252 HENRY VII. [1404-97. 

in regard to tliat event. He next dispersed his spies all over 
Flanders, and procured sufficient evidence of the conspiracy, 
and the pedigree, adventures, life, and convei-sation of the pre- 
tended Duke of York was all laid before him, which he ini- 
niediatelj published. The conspirators were reserved for a 
sloAA-er and surer vengeance. 

lie soon arrested the leading noblemen interested in the re- 
volt. Thev were tried and executed, and subsequentl)- Sir 
William Stanley was accused. He denied the charge., but was 
immediately connnitted to the Tower, and after a delay of six 
weeks was brought to trial, condemned, and on February 15, 
11:95, executed. 

The fate of Stanley made a great impression on the nation, 
and struck the partisans of Warbeck with dismay. 

Warbeck now directed his course to Scotland, where he had 
been recommended by the King of France to the attention of 
James IV., and received a favorable reception from that 
monarch, who assured him that, whatever he might be, he 
should never repeut putting himself into his hands. James 
was seduced to believe the story of Warbeck's birth, and carried 
his confidence so far as to give him in marriage the Lady 
C^atherine Gordon, related to himself, a young lady eminent for 
her beauty and virtue. 

In 1197 Henry demanded from the King of Scotland that 
AVarbeck should he delivered into his hands. James replied that 
he himself was no judge of the young man's pretensions, but 
having received him as a guest, and promised him his protec- 
tion, he was determined not to betray him. Feai'ing, however, 
that while Warl)eck remained in his kingdom he .should have 
no solid peace with Henry, he privately desired him to leave 
Scotland. 

Warbeck held consultation with his followers, Heme, Skelton, 
and Asley, and they decided to try the affections of the Cornish, 
who were then in rebellion with Henry. Xo sooner did he ap- 
pear there than the populace, to the mmiber of three thousand, 
flocked to his standard, when for the first time he took on him 
the title of Eichard IV. ; he then marched to Exeter, and in- 
vited the citizens to join him. 



1498-1502.] HENRY VII. 253 

When Henry was informed of Warbeck's landing in England 
lie expressed great joy, raised an army, and prepared to march 
on the enemy. 

Warbeck, informed of these great preparations, innnediately 
left Exeter and retired to Taunton. Though his followers now 
amounted to seven thousand men, he despaired of success, and 
secretly withdrew to the sanctuary of Eeaulieu, in the jS^ew 
Forest. The Cornish rebels submitted to the kmg's mercy. 

Henry now employed persons to treat with Warbeck, offer- 
ing him a pardon if he would deliver himself into the king's 
hands, which having accepted, he was conducted to London, 
where he was obliged to make a full confession, but attemptiug 
to escape, he was confined in the Tower, and being there de- 
tected in a conspiracy with the Earl of Warwick, then a prisoner, 
for this new attempt he was tried, condemned, and hanged at 
Tyburn, li99. 

In 1498 Henry fitted out Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, and 
resident of Bristol, in search of new countries. He discovered 
Newfoundland, and sailiug southward, made the mainland of 
Amei'ica toward the sixtieth degree of north latitude. 

Soon after, the Earl of Warwick, on the pretence of attenipt- 
iug to escape from the Tower, was brought to trial, and on No- 
vember 21, 1499, beheaded on Tower Hill. 

This act of tyranny caused great discontent, which Henry 
vainly endeavored to alleviate by alleging that his ally, Ferdi- 
nand of Aragon, refused to give his daughter Catherine in 
marriage to his son Arthur while any male descendant of the 
House of York survived. 

Cn November 14, 1501, the king had the satisfaction of com- 
pleting the marriage between Arthm-, Prince of Wales, then in 
his sixteenth year, and the Infanta Catherine of Aragon, aged 
eighteen. The marriage proved unfortunate, as the young- 
prince soon afterward sickened and died, April 2, 1502. 
Henry, desirous to contimie his alliance with Spain, and also 
unwilling to restore Catherine's dowry, obliged his second son, 
Henry, a boy of twelve years of age, whom he created Prince 
of Wales, to be contracted in marriage to the Infanta, an event 
wdiich was afterward attended M'ith most important consc- 



25i HENRY VII. [I0O3-5. 

queiiees. In this same year anotlier marriage was celebrated 
which was also, in the next age, productive of great events, and 
the ultimate union of England and Scotland — the niai'riage of 
Margaret, the king's eldest daughter, with James IV., King of 
Scotland. But, amidst these prosperous incidents, the king met 
with a domestic calamity in the death of his queen in child- 
birth, February 11, 1503. The infant did not long survive her. 

The situation of the king's affairs, both at home and abroad, 
being now in every respect very fortunate, he gave full scope to 
his natural propensity, and avarice, which had ever been his 
ruling passion, being increased by age and encouraged by abso- 
lute authority, broke all restraints of shame or justice. lie 
had found two ministers, Empson and Dudley, perfectly quali- 
fied to second his rapacious and tyrannical inclinations to prey 
upon his defenceless people. By the revival of old laws and 
other means he amassed a fortune of £2,000,000. The chief 
means of oppression were the penal statutes, which, without 
consideration of rank, quality, or services, were put in execution 
against all men. He also extorted money from his subjects on 
pretence of making war, and sold pardons and traded in offices 
belouffiuii; to the court and chnrcli. 

The clergy were not friendly to Henry, yet he followed the 
policy of the House of Lancaster, causing at least two Lollards 
to be burned and severely persecuting nuiuy others. 

He sought to reform the church, and in his reign we find the 
first indications of that course which, in his successors' time, 
ended in the Reformation. He also encouraged commerce and 
patronized voyages of discovery. 

The reign of Henry VII. was, in the main, fortunate for his 
people at home, and honorable abroad. He put an end to the 
civil wars which had so long harassed the nation ; he suppressed 
■ the former exorbitant power of the nobility, and, with the 
friendship of some foreign princes, acquired the consideration 
of all. He loved peace, without fearing war. 

Henry was a tall, thin man, of a severe yet anxious appear- 
ance, who never moved abroad without his guards, and made 
no attempt to gain the favor of his people by mingling freely 
with them, as the Yorkist princes had done. His courage and 



1509.] HENRY VIII. 255 

address gained liim a throne, bnt lie liad none of the other high 
qualities that ought to accompany such a position. 

He had known poverty in his youth, and his every action 
afterward seemed devoted to guarding against such a calamity 
for the future. Hence, he cared not how he gained money, 
though, no doubt, he was best pleased when he could extract 
it from the Yorkists. 

Their depression, indeed, seemed the great purpose of his 
life, after the acquisition of treasure, and he often managed to 
combine the two. 

His treatment of his wife was bad. He kept her in complete 
dependence ; he took her plate in pledge when he lent her 
money to pay her debts. 

The whole character of his reign was in accordance with his 
jDrivate life — harsh, cold, and suspicious ; but it forms a mem- 
orable era as being the turning-point when the old forms of 
government and living began to pass away, and the foundatioTis 
were laid of something like the present state of society. 

Henry died of consumption at the Palace of Richmond, 
April 21, 1509, after a reign of twenty-three years and eight 
months, and in the fifty-second year of his age, and was suc- 
ceeded by his second son, Henry. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : James HI., James IV. ; 
France : Charles VIII., Louis XH. ; Emperors of the West : 
Frederick HI., Maximilian. 

Henry VIII. — A.D. 1509-1547. 

Bom at Greenwich, January 28, 1491. 
Crowned June 24, 1509. 
Married : 

1. Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales. 

Divorced. Issue : 

Henry, Duke of Cornwall. Died young. 
Mary, who ascended the throne. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn. Beheaded. Issue : 

A son, the Duke of Cornwall, who died yoving. 
Elizabeth, who ascended the throne. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of Sir John Seymour. Issue : 

Edward, Duke of Cornwall, who succeeded his father as Edward 
VI. 



256 HENRY VIII. [1509. 

4. Ann, daughter of the Duke of Cleves. Divorced. 

5. Catherine Howard. Beheaded. 

G. Catherine, daughter of Sir Thomas Parr. She survived him. 
Henry died at Whitehall, January 28, 1547. 

IIexry, second king of England of the Tndor dynasty, and 
second son of Henry VII. and his wife Elizabeth, eldest daugh- 
ter of Edward IV., was boi-n in Greenwich Palace, January 28, 
11:91 ; was i^reated Prince of Wales on the death of his brother 
Arthur, and recognized as heir-apparent, April 2, 1502. 

His father intended that he should become the head of the 
English Church, and was educating him for the archiepiscopal 
See of Canterbury. 

Arthur, Prince of Wales, had married Catherine of Aragon, 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, receiving with her a dowiy 
of two hundred thousand crowns, one-half of which had been 
paid. On his death her parents desired that she should be sent 
Lome, and that the money which had been paid should be re- 
funded. But Henry objected, and proposed that Catherine 
should marry the new heir, who was live years her junior. It 
was agreed to, and she was betrothed to Henry, June 25, 1503. 
The following year a dispensation was procured from the Pope, 
on the ground that Arthur's marriage was never consummated. 

The king, who was always conscientious wlien ill, appears at 
this time to have had some scruples on the snbject of the mar- 
riage, and would have i-estored the princess to her parents, but 
lie could not bear to part with her dowry. 

The death of Henry VII. was attended with as open joy by 
the people as decency would permit, and the accession and 
coronation of liis son Henry gave nniversal satisfaction. In- 
stead of a monarch jealous, severe, and avaricious, who, in pro- 
portion as he advanced in years, was sinking deeper in those 
unpopular vices, a young prince had succeeded to the throne 
who gave promise of his future conduct. His person was 
handsome, his mind cultivated, and he was fond of domestic 
pleasures ; and as the contending parties of York and Lancaster 
were now at last fully united in his person, men fully expected 
that impartiality of administration which had long been un- 
known in Euii-land. 



1509-12.] HENRY VIII. 257 

On Henry's ascending the throne, April 22, 1509, it was 
urged tliat his marriage witli Catherine should immediately 
take place, because of the anxiety to secure the succession. 
The Wars of the Roses in the preceding century had made a 
lasting impression on the English mind, and they wished to 
obviate it ; as, should Henry die without an heir, there would 
ensue an immediate contest for the crown between the houses 
of York and Tudor, l)oth represented by women — the former 
by the Countess of Salisbury, daughter of the Duke of Clarence, 
brother of Edward IV., and the latter by the daughter of the 
late king. The marriage M'as therefore solemnized two months 
after his father's death, on June 7th, at Greenwich, and on the 
24tli of the same month Henry and his queen were crowned. 

The popularity of Henry's government, his undisputed title, 
his large treasure, the tranquillity of his people, were sul)jects 
which rendered his administi-ation easy and prosperous. The 
situation of his foreign affairs was no less happy and desirous. 

His first acts were to dismiss the obnoxious ministers of the 
late king, and returning fines that had been unjustly or oppres- 
sively exacted. Much was hoped and expected of him, and 
not altogether in vain. 

Though addicted to pleasure, he was not unmindful of busi- 
ness, and paid special attention to foreign affairs. His manners 
were pleasing, yet he showed at an early period, not a little of 
that ol)stinacy which became his trait in after life. 

In 1510 he received the "Golden Kose" from Pope Julius 
II., who wished to obtain his aid to expel the French from 
Italy ; but at first he was disposed to be moderate, and pui-- 
sue the policy of his father. 

He made a treaty with France, and afterward entered into 
engagements with his father-in-law, guaranteeing his Spanish 
dominions against the French, and sent an ambassador to 
Rome to promote a pacification. 

After a time lie was induced to join an alliance, or Holy 
League, of the Pope, King Ferdinand, and the Duke of Ven- 
ice, against France, and on February 4, 1512, war was de- 
clared, and Parliament being summoned, readily granted sup- 
plies for a purpose so much favored by the nation. 
17 



258 HENRY VIII. [1512. 

An army of ten tlioiisand men, under the Marquis of Dor- 
set, was dispatched to France, but, owing to the faihire of 
Ferdinand's promised assistance, they returned to EngUind with- 
out accoinplisliing any gi-eat result. 

JSTotwithstanding his disappointments in this campaigni Henry 
M^as still encouraged to prosecute his warlike measures against 
Louis, especially as Leo X., who had succeeded Julius on the 
papal throne, had detached the Emperor Maximilian from the 
French interest. lie determined to invade France, and, all on 
fire for military fame, was little discouraged by the prospect of 
a war with the Scotch, who had formed an alliance with 
France, and he had now got a minister who complied with all 
his inclinations, and flattered him in every scheme to which 
his sanguine and impetuous temper was inclined. Thomas 
Wolsey, Dean of Lincoln, and almoner to the king, surpassed 
in favor all his ministers, and was fast advancing toward that 
unrivalled grandeur which he aftei'ward attained. He was the 
son of a wealthy butcher of Ipswich, who, though a pi-iest, in 
less than twenty years, by unwearied diligence in everything 
but church affairs, raised himself from the humble position of 
tntor in the Marquis of Dorset's family, to l)e Loi-d Chancellorj 
Archbishop, Cardinal, and Papal Legate, and even aspired to 
become Pope. All the affairs of the kingdom passed througli his 
hands, and he tried to grasp at those of all (Christendom also. 
His household was as sumptuous as that of the king ; rival 
monarchs heaped favors and pensions upon him ; he seemed to 
make peace or war at his pleasure, and he had the absurd arro- 
gance, in writing to foreign powers, to use the expi'ession 
'"'■ Ego et Rex Mens''' (I and my king), as if, as it was 
afterward remarked in Parliament, "the king was his ser- 
vant." 

As Archbishop Warham, who had been stripped of the 
Chancellorship that Wolsey might hold it, remarked, "This 
man is drunk with too much prosperit}'." For some years all 
went smoothly wjth him. The Duke of Buckingham incurred 
his displeasure and lost his head in consequence, and the proud- 
est nobles no longer dared withstand him, while every quarrel 
between the King of France and the emperor only added to his 



1513.] HENRY VIII. O59 

wealtli, as he sold the aid of his king first to one party and 
then to another. 

Tlie war eonimeneed in 1513 with a desperate naval engage- 
ment, in which Sir Edward Howard, the English admiral, was 
slain. On JunA 30th Henry landed at Calais with an army of 
fifty thousand men, and was there joined by the Emperor 
Maximilian, with some German and Flemisli soldiers. Observ- 
ing the disposition of the English monarch to be more bent on 
glory than interest, Maximilian enlisted in his service, wore the 
cross of St. George, and received one hundred crowns a day, 
as one of his subjects and captains. 

Marching from Calais, he appeared before Terouanne, and 
having received intelligence of the ai^proach of the French 
horse, ordered some troops to pass the Lis in order to oppose 
them. The cavalry of France, though they consisted chielly of 
gentlemen who had behaved with great gallantry in many des- 
perate actions in Italy, were, on sight of the enemy, seized with 
so unaccountable a panic that they immediately took to flight, 
and were pursued by the English and many officers of distinc- 
tion were made prisoners. 

This action, or rather rout, is sometimes called the battle of 
Guinegat€, from the place where it was fought, but more com- 
monly the battle of Spurs, because the French that day, xlugust 
• 16th, made more use of their spurs than their swords. Henry 
then continued the siege of Terouanne. After the fall of that 
place, August ,22d, he laid siege to Tournay, which surren- 
dered September 21st. The bishop of that cit}' was lately 
dead, and Henry bestowed the administration of that see on 
his favorite Wolsey, and put him in immediate possession of 
the revenues, which were considerable ; and as the season was 
now far advanced he thought proper to return to England with 
the greater part of his army. 

The success which, during this summer, had attended Henry's 
arms in the north, was much more decisive. 

James, King of Scotland, had assembled the whole force of 
his kingdom, and, having passed the Tweed, ravaged those 
parts of Northumberland which lay nearest that river. Mean- 
while the Earl of Surrey, having collected a force of thirty 



260 HENRY VIII. [1513-15. 

thousand men, marched to the defence of the country. The 
two armies met at Flodden, near the Cheviot Hills, September 
9th. The action was desperate and protracted till night sepa- 
rated the combatants. Tlie victory seemed yet undecided, and 
the numbers that fell on each side were nearly equal, amounting 
to about five thousand men ; but the morning discovered where 
the advantage lay. The English had lost only men of small 
note, but the flower of the Scottish nobility had fallen in battle, 
and the king himself could nowhere be found. In searchiug 
the field tlie English met with a body resembling him, which 
was put in a coffin and sent to London. 

When Margaret, Queen of Scotland, who was appointed 
regent during the minority of her son, applied for peace, Henry 
readily granted it, and took compassion on the helpless condi- 
tion of his sister and nephew. 

The following year (1514) Henry discovered that both the 
emperor and the King of Spain had deserted his alliance for 
that of Louis, and that they had listened to a pronosition for a 
marriage for their common grandson, the Archduke Charles, to 
a daughter of the Fi-ench king, although that young prince was 
already affianced to Henry's sister Mary. Under these circum- 
stances Llenry readily listened to the suggestion of his pris- 
oner, the Duke of Longueville, for a peace with France, to 
be confirmed by Mary's marriage with Louis, who was a wid- 
ower. 

A treaty was easily adjusted between the monarchs, August 
7, 1514, and stipulated that Tournay should remain in the 
hands of England ; that Henry should receive one million 
crowns, being arrears due by treaty to his father and himself, 
and that Louis should marry his sister, the Princess Mary, re- 
ceiving four hundred thousand crowns as her dower. 

The marriage was consummated, and Louis died in less than 
three months afterward, January 1, 1515. He Avas succeeded 
by Francis, Count of Angouleme, a youth of twenty-one, who 
had married Louis's eldest daughter. 

Shortly afterward Mary secretly married Charles Brandon, 
Duke of Suffolk, to whom she had been formerly attached, and 
without Henry's consent, but through the influence of Wolsey 



1515-18.] HENRY VIII. 261 

and the King of France, Henry became reconciled to the mar- 
riage, and they were permitted to return to England. 

The success of Francis I. in Italy alarmed Europe, and the 
German emperor sought to engage Henry to act against France 
by holding out hopes of being made his successor. 

The numerous enemies whom Wolsey's sudden elevation had 
raised him serv^ed only lo rivet him faster in Henry's confidence. 
The artful prelate, well acquainted with the king's imperious 
temper, concealed from him the absolute ascendance which he 
had acquired, and while he secretly directed all public councils, 
he ever pretended a blind submission to the will and authority 
of his master. 

He had now been promoted to the see of York, with which 
he was allowed to unite that of Dnrliam, next that of Winches- 
ter, and there seemed to be no end to his accpiisitions. The 
Pope created him a cardinal (1515). Xo churchman, under 
color of exacting respect to religion, ever carried to a greater 
heiglit the state and dignity of that character. 

His train consisted of eight hundred servants, of whom many 
were knights and gentlemen ; some even of the nobility put 
their children into his family as a place of education ; and in 
order to gain them favor with their patron, allowed them to 
bear office as his servants. On the resignation of Wai'ham, 
Chancellor, and Archbishop of Canterbury, the great seal was 
immediately delivered to him. 

A strict administration of justice took place during his en- 
joyment of this high office, and no chancellor ever displayed 
greater impartiality in his decisions, deeper penetration of judg- 
ment, or more enlarged knowledge of law and equity. 

Francis I., being desirous of recovering Tournay, succeeded, 
by means of flatteries and attentions, in gaining Wolsey's favor. 
By the cardinal's advice a treaty was entered into for the ceding 
of that town ; and in order to give the measure a more graceful 
appearance, it was agreed that the dauphin and the Princess 
Mary, the king's daughter, both of them infants, should be be- 
trothed, and that the city should be considered as the dowry of 
the princess. Francis also agreed to pay six hundred thousand 
crowns in twelve annual payments, and lest the cardinal should 



262 HENRY VIII. [1519. 

tliink himself neglected, lie promised him a yoarlv pension of 
twelve thousand livres, as an equivalent for his administration 
of the bishopric of Tournay. 

The pride of Wolsey was at this time further increased by 
his being invested with the legatine power by the Pope, with 
the right of visiting all the monasteries and the clergy in Eng- 
land, and even of suspending all the laws of the church during 
a twelvemonth. 

While lienry, indulging himself in pleasure and amusements, 
intrusted the government of his kingdom to his imperious minis- 
ter, the death of the Emperor Maximilian left vacant the first 
station among Christian princes. The kings of France and Spain 
immediately declared themselves candidates for the imperial 
crown, and eniplo3^ed every expedient of money or intrigue 
which promised them success in so great a point of ambition. 

Henry also was encouraged to advance his pretensions, but 
his minister, Pace, who was dispatched to the electors, found 
he began to solicit too late, and that the votes of all these prin- 
ces were already engaged, either to one side or the other. 

Charles ultimately prevailed, and thus fortune alone, without 
the assistance of prudence or valor, never reared up of a sud- 
den so great a power as that which centred in him. lie reaped 
the succession of Castile, of Aragon, of Austria, of the Nether- 
lands ; he inherited the conquest of Naples, of Grenada — elec- 
tion entitled him to the Empire. 

Francis, disgusted with his ill-success, now applied himself, 
by way of counterpoise to the power of Charles, to cultivate the 
friendship of Ilemy, who possessed the f felicity of being able, 
both by the native force of his kingdom and its situation, to 
• hold the balance between those two powers. 

Flo solicited an interview near Calais, in expectation of being 
able, by familiar conversation, to gain upon his friendship and 
confidence, and as Henry himself loved show and magnificence, 
and had entertained a curiosity of being personally acquainted 
with the French king, he cheerfully arranged all the prelimi- 
naries. 

Meanwhile, the emperor, politic, though young, being in- 
formed of the intended interview, was apprehensive of the con- 



1530.] HEXRY VIII. 203 

sequences, and took the opportunity, in his passage from Spain 
to the Low Countries, to make the English king a still higher 
compliment, by payhig him a visit in his own dominions. 
Ileni-y and his queen hastened to meet him at Hytlie. 

Besides the marks of regard and attachment which Charles 
gave to Henry, he gained the cardinal to his interests, by hold- 
ing out to him the hope of attaining the papacy. The views of 
Hem-y himself, after being disappointed of the imperial crown, 
were directed toward France as his ancient inheritance ; and no 
power was more fitted than the emperor to assist him in such a 
design. 

The day of Charles's departure (May 30, 1520), Henry went 
over to Calais, with the queen and his whole court, and thence 
proceeded to Guisnes, a small town near the frontiers. Francis 
attended in like manner, came to Ardres, a few miles distant; 
and the two monarchs met for the first time in the tields, at a 
place situated between these two towns, but still within tlie 
English territory, for Francis agreed to pay this compliment to 
Henry in consideration of that prince having crossed the sea 
that he might be present at the interview. Wolsey, to whom 
both kings liad intrusted the regulation of the ceremonial, con- 
trived this circumstance in order to do honor to his master. 
Tlie nobility of France and England here displayed their mag- 
nificence with such emulation and profuse expense as procured 
for the place of interview the name of The Field of the Cloth of 
Gold. Many of the nobles involved themselves in such debt 
that they were not able to recover for a long time after- 
ward. 

The two monarchs, who were the most comely personages of 
the age, after a short, secret conference, and the interchange of 
visits of ceremony and friendship, and confidence being fully 
established between them, passed their time till their depai-ture 
in tournaments and other entertainments more than any serious 
business. 

Henry then paid a visit to the emperor and IMargaret of 
Savoy, at Gravelines, and engaged them to go along with him 
to Calais, where the artful and politic Charles, by his arts, 
effaced all tlie friendship to which the frank and generous na- 



264 HENRY VIII. [1531. 

tiire of Francis liad given l)irtli. Charles completed tlie con- 
quest of Wolsej by conferring Castilian sees upon him. 

War breaking out the following year between the Emperor 
Charles and Francis, Henrv was induced by Wolsey to favor 
the former, and enter into an offensive alliance with him. 

About this time Leo X. published the sale of indulgences.' The 
collectors of this revenue in Germany are said to have lived very 
immoral 'li\'es, and to have spent in taverns, gambling houses, 
and places still more infamous, the money wliicli devout persons 
liad saved from theii* usual expenses in order to purchase a re- 
mission of their sins. Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, profes- 
sor in the University of Wittemberg, resenting the affront put 
upon his order, began to preach against the abuse in the sale of 
those indulgences, and being naturally of a liery temper, and 
provoked l)y opposition, he proceeded to exclaim even against 
indulgences themselves, and carried away by the heat of dis- 
pute, to question the authority of the Pope. 

The rumor of these troubles soon reached England, and as 
there still existed in that country followers of the Lollards, 
whose principles resembled those of Luther, the new doctrines 
secretly gained many friends among the laity of all ranks. 

Ileniy had been educated in strict attachment to the Church 
of Rome, and he bore a particular prejudice to Luther. lie 
therefore wrote a Ijook in Latin against his principles, and sent 
a copy of it to the Pope. Leo received it with great regard 
and pleasure, and, in return, conferred on Henry the title of 
" Defender of the Faith," an appellation still retained by the 
kings and queens of England to the present day. 

Luther soon publislied an answer to Henry, and treated him, 
without regard to his dignity, in the severest manner, which 
made the king still more prejudiced against the new doctrine, 
and as the controversy now became illustrious l)y Henry 's enter- 
ing it, it acquired new converts in every part of Europe. 

The same year occurred the execution of the Duke of Buck- 
ingham, one of the greatest nobles of the realm, and descended 
in the female line from Edward IH. His death was attributed 
to AVolsey, but also due to the jealousy of the king, who could 
not bear auv one near him who had claims to the succession. 



1522-3] HENRY VIII. 205 

The death of Leo X. and elevation of Adrian YI. endangered 
the alliance between Charles and Henrj, because of Wolsey's 
disappointment ; but the emperor visited England, soothed the 
cardinal (who wanted to be Pope), and prevailed upon Henry 
to declare war against France ; and this measure was founded 
upon so little reason that he could not show any good ground of 
quarrel but Francis's refusal to submit to his arbitration, and 
his sending the Duke of Albany to Scotland. 

An English army under the Earl of Surrey landed at Cher- 
bourg, but did little beyond burning and pillaging a few places 
of little note. 

In the year 1523 Henry marched an army into Scotland 
nnder command of the Earl of Surrey, who ravaged the south- 
ern counties without opposition. The Scots had neither king 
nor regent to conduct them, and no nobleman of any vigor re- 
mained who M'as competent to conduct tlie government. 

Henry, knowing the distressed condition of the country, 
offered the Scotch, if they would renounce the French alliance 
and eni1)race that of England, to give his daughter and heiress, 
the Lady Mary, in mari'iage to the young king, an expedient 
which would forever unite the two kingdoms ; but the argu- 
ments of the French party being seconded by the prejudices of 
the people, prevailed, and Henry's offers wei'e not accepted. 

Henry was a party to the conspiracy of Charles, Duke of 
Bourbon, Constable of France, against Francis I., and on 
August 24, 1524, an English army, commanded by the Duke of 
Suffolk, landed at Calais, and being joined by about fifteen 
thousand Flemings, under the Count de Buren, prepared to in- 
vade France, and from this conspiracy he expected to become 
as powerful in that country as Henry V. had been; 1)ut the 
failure of the plot utterly ruiued the Duke of Bourbon, and the 
English aftny met with as little success as the previous one 
under the Earl of Surrey. 

The death of Adrian VI. this year, and the election of 
Clement VII. by the concurrence of the imperial party deter- 
mined "Wolsey to withdraw IJenry from that alliance, and pave 
the way for an union between his master and the French king, 
but he was not able to accomplish his purpose until after the 



0(5(5 HENRY VIII. [1525-7. 

battle of Pavia, Fehniarv 24, 1525. The French monarch having 
been taken prisoner at that battle by the imperial army, Henry 
concluded an alliance with the Regent of France on August 
30, 1525, in which the regent acknowledged the kingdom of 
France Henry's debtor for one million eight hundred thousand 
crowns, to be discharged in half-yearly payments of fifty thou- 
sand crowns, after which Henry was to receive a yearly pension 
of one hundred thousand crown^^ for life. He engaged to pro- 
cure the liberty of her son, the king, on reasonable conditions. 
On January 14, 152G, the treaty of Madrid was signed, stipulat- 
ing for Francis's deliverance in six weeks on the performance 
of certain terms, all of which was extremely severe upon the 
captive monarch, who was liberated and entered his dominions 
on March 18, 152G. 

In the year 1527, Bourbon, who commanded the Imperialists 
in Italy, Unding it difficult to support his army, determined to 
lead it to Rome, which he took by storm, but was himself slain 
in the attack. 

Pope Clement was taken captive, and the city was exposed to 
all the violence and brutality of a licentious soldiery. The 
Backing of Rome and the captivity of the Pope caused general 
indignation among all the Catholics of Europe. A new treaty 
was concluded between Henry and Francis, with a view of ex- 
pelling the Im])erialists from Italy, and restoring the Pope to 
liberty. Henry agreed finally to renounce all claims to the 
ci»own of France ; claims which might now be deemed chimeri- 
cal, but which often served as a pretence for exciting the un- 
wary English to wage war on the French nation. 

As a return for this "concession, Francis bound himself and 
his successors to pay forever fifty thousand crowns a year to 
Henry and his successors, and that greater solemnity might be 
given to this treaty, it was agreed that the parliaments and great 
nobility of both kingdoms should give their assent to it. 

From this time the question of Henry's divorce became the 
leading incident of his reign. His marriage with Catherine 
had not been productive of heirs. During the first nine years 
of their union, the queen had thrice miscarried, two sons had 
died immediately after birth, and a third still-born ; the only 



1528-9.] HENRY VIII. 267 

child tliat lived was the Princess Mary, now eleven years old. 
Henry, who was superstitions even to fanaticism, was nincli 
oppressed by these repeated misfortunes, and believed they weie 
punishments for having- married his brother's widow. The idea 
of divorce no doubt had been maturing in his mind for years, 
when accident gave it sudden pronunence. 

The states of Castile had opposed tlie Emperor Charles's 
espousals with Lady Mary, Henry's daughter,' and among other 
objections had insisted on her illegitimate birth, and when the 
marriage of that princess with a French prince was spoken of 
as probable, her legitimacy was questioned by the French envoy, 
the Bishop of Tarbes. This the king asserted in council as his 
reasons, but there were other causes which no doubt had a 
greater influence over him. 

The qneen was over five years his senior, and the loss of lier 
beauty, together with particular infirmities, and female diseases, 
had contributed, notwithstanding her blameless character, to 
render her person unacceptable to him. 

The succession to 'the crown was another consideration that 
occurred to every one, whenever the lawfulness of Henry's mar- 
riage was called in question, and it was well understood, that if 
doubts of Mary's legitimacy concurred with the weakness of her 
sex, the King of Scotland, the next heir, would advance his 
pretensions, and might throw the kingdom into confusion. The 
recent convulsions arising from disputed titles made gi'eat im- 
pressions on men's minds, and made them desirous of any event 
which might obviate such a calamity. 

The king was thus impelled, both by his private passions and 
motives of public interest, to seek the dissolution of his (as it 
was esteemed) unlawful marriage with Catherine. 

Anne Boleyn, who lately appeared at court, had been ap- 
pointed maid of honor to the queen, and having had frecpicnt 
opportunities of being seen l)y Henry, and conversing with him, 
she had acquired an entire ascendancy over his affections. This 
young lady was daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, who had been 
employed by the king on several embassies, and was allied to 
the Duke of Norfolk, and most of the principal nobility of the 
kingdoni. Anne had attended the king's sister to France, when 



268 HENRY VIII. [15'29. 

the latter married Lonis XIL, and on tlie death of that monarch 
and return of the dowager to England, was retained in her ser- 
vice because of her many accompli.shnlents. Henry, finding that 
her virtue and modesty prevented all hopes of gratifying his pas- 
sion in any other manner, determined to raise her to the throne. 

At this time the Pope was under the power of the Imperial- 
ists, and soon became a prisoner of the emperor. Wolsey 
determined to procure a divorce for the king, in the hope of 
binding Henry to the cause of the ancient church, which was 
beginning to feel the attack of the Reformers. 

Apart from the theological reasons Mdiieh deterred the Pope 
from granting the divorce, he had to dread the resentment of 
the Emperor Charles, wdio was Catherine's nephew, but, im- 
portuned by the English ministers, he at last put into their 
hands a commission to Wolsey as legate, in conjunction with 
the Archbishop of Canterburj^, to examine the validity of the 
king's marriage, and of Pope Julius's dispensation ; he also 
granted them a provisional dispensation f(jr the king's marriage 
with any other person, and promised to issue a decreted bull 
annulling the marriage with Catherine, but represented to them 
the dangerous position in which he stood with the emperor, and 
charged them not to pubHsh this connuission, or make any use 
of it, until his affairs were such as to assure his liberty and in- 
dependence. 

When Henry received the commission and dispensation from 
his ambassadors, and was informed of the Pope's instructions, 
he laid the whole matter before his ministers, and asked their 
advice in so delicate a situation. They innnediately saw the dan- 
ger of proceeding in the manner pointed out to them. Should 
the Pope refuse to ratify a deed which he might justly call pre- 
cipitate and irregular, and should he disavow the advice which 
he gave in so clandestine a manner, the king would find the sec- 
ond marriage totally invalidated, the children which it might 
bring him declared illegitimate, and his marriage with Cathe- 
rine more firmly riveted than ever. 

It was impossible that the Pope should continue to be the 
open enemy of the emperor, and, nnless he should so continue 
his aid in the divorce question could not be counted on. 



1529.] HENRY VIII. 269 

At this crisis, wlieii it was seen tliat tlie Pope dared not 
grant the divorce, Tlionias Cranmer, a member of Jesus College, 
Cambridge, suggested that the universities should be applied 
to, to answer the question : " Do the laws of God allow a 
man to marry his brotlier's widow ? " This entirely suited 
Henry's humor, and Cranmer was summoned to court, and em- 
ployed with others, both lawyers and divines, to write in favor 
of the divorce ; and a secret agent was sent out to the different 
foreign universities. 

The Emperor Charles being ruler of Flanders, an alliance 
with him was popular in England, from the fact of a large 
business being carried on between both countries. The em- 
peror himself was poj^ular with the Reformei-s, because he was 
at war with the Pope ; with the conservatives because they 
knew his position necessarily made him the champion of the 
old order of things, though circumstances, for the time, made 
him their apparent enemy; and generally because he was the 
enemy of France, England's old rival. Wolsey triumphed over 
all these obstacles, by convincing Henry that, by a change of 
foreign policy, he could cause the Pope to grant the divorce he 
so much desired, and in his correspondence with the English 
agent at Pome, he declared that the king would disregard the 
wishes of his subjects and the private interest of his realm, to 
attach himself cordially and constantly to the Holy See, pro- 
vided the Pope should prove his friend in the matter he had so 
much at heart. 

That Henry was in part governed by religious feelings, and 
also by the considerations growing out of the subject of suc- 
cession, cannot reasonably be doubted, but his attachment to 
Anne Boleyn was the real cause for his wish to put away his wife. 

The Pope now for years had played a double game, though 
warned by Wolsey and others of the evils that must follow to 
Rome from his failure to please Henry, who, at last convinced 
that only bold measures would answer, avowed his intention to 
make Anne Boleyn his wife. Henry sent a relation of that 
lady to Rome to announce to the Pope that his request must be 
granted, menacing, that if he failed the whole matter would be 
laid before Parliament. 



270 HENRY VIII. . [1529. 

The emperor sought to intimidate Henry, who sumnioned a 
meeting of the nobles, merchants, and others in London, before 
whom he phiced the reasons for his conduct, and appealed to 
tlie patriotism of his subjects with success. 

Tiie imperial threats and intrigues proved very injurious to 
the queen's cause. Catherine now appealed to Home, May, 
1529, to which Henry was sunnnoned. Against this Wolsey 
protested, declaring that if Henry should go to that court it 
would be with such a force as should be formidable to the Pope 
and all Ital_y. 

A parliament was immediately called and power passed into 
the hands of new men, though of the old ai'istocracy and Wol- 
sey's enemies, and opposed to tlie rule of the Church, yet not 
Reformers in every case. At this time there were three parties 
in the country, the English party, in whose hands Avas power, 
and who\vere determined on a secular revolt; the papal party, 
the chief member of which w^as Sir Thomas More, n(jw Chan- 
cellor; and the doctrinal Protestants, 'who were disliked by 
both the others. 

Wolsey opened the Court of Chancery with even more than 
his usual })omp, at the beginning of Michaelmas Tei-m, 1529, 
and on the same day the king's attorney preferred an indictment 
ao'ainst him, charo-ino; him with receivimi; bulls from Home and 
holding his court as legate within the realm, an offence against 
a statute of Richard II., for which he was liable to forfeiture of 
goods and imprisonment. Though it was notorious that what 
he had done was by the king's direct comnumd, judgment was 
given against him, and on October IT, 1529, the great seal was 
taken from him and he was banished from court. Anne Boleyn 
extorted a promise from her royal lover that he should see Wol- 
sey no more. The utter ruin of the discarded minister was ne- 
cessary for the success of the new policy. Pardon was granted 
him on the surrender of his vast possessions to the crown, and 
he M^as ordered to proceed at once to his bishopric of Yorlc, the 
only dignity he was allowed to retain. Put hardly a year liad 
passed before his popularity in the Korth revived the jealousy 
of his political rivals, and on the eve of his installation feast lie 
was arrested on the cliaro-e of high treason, and conducted by 



1530.] HENRY VIII. 27 J 

the lieutenant of tlie Tower toward London. An attack of dys- 
entery forced him to rest at the Abbey of Leicester, and on his 
entrance he said to tlie brotlier who met liim, " I have come to 
layiny bones among you." On his deathbed he said, " If I had 
served my Clod as faithfully as I have served my king, he would 
not have deserted nie in my old age." 

Parliament met on November 3, 1529. The fact that the 
opening speech was made by Sir Thomas More, an extreme 
Catholic, standing at the king's right hand, shows that Henry 
had even then no wish to break with Rome. Parliament was 
left to pursue its own course, and it proceeded to denounce tlie 
clergy in a formal act of accusation or petition, which contained 
the germ of the English Peformation. Henry submitted this 
to the bishops, who protested, but ineffectually, as the Connnons 
passed several laws respecting the powers and privileges of the 
clerical order, and the Lords concurred, though the clergy 
formed a large portion of tlie Upper House, which shows that 
the pressure was great from without. 

The divorce question continued under discussion, and the 
Pope issued two inhibitions, threatening Henry with spiritual 
censures if he should proceed. Tlie king thought at one time 
of giving way, and most of the Council agreed with him, but 
Thomas Cromwell induced him to persevere. Henry thought 
the action of Parliament would intimidate the Papal Court. 

The right of the Pope to grant that dispensation under which 
the marriage to Henry and Catherine had taken place was now 
called in cpiestion, the object of which was to transfer the ques- 
tion to a broader court and there get a decision against that mar- 
riage. This is said to have been suggested by Cranmei-, who 
made himself prominent in obtaining the opinions of univer- 
sities and learned men on the subject, and who belonged to 
the embassy of the Earl of Wiltshire, sent to the emperor at 
Bologna in 1530. This embassy failed to move Charles. 

The Pope still affected impartiality and allowed free expres- 
sion of opinion in Italy on the marriage, but his sole object was 
delay, and Spanish influence was exerted in the queen's interest. 

In France and England Henry's cause triumphed, because all 
the influence of both o'overnments were used in its behalf. On 



272 HENRY VIII. [15ni-2. 

January 10, 1531, a now Parliament was lield, together with a 
couvoeatioii, and the king liere gave strong proofs of his exten- 
sive authority. An ancient statute, tlien ahnost ohsolete, which 
had been employed to ruin AVolsey, was now turned against 
the higher clergy, but less in the spirit of justice tlian to obtain 
an opportunity to sti-ip them of some of their property. 

The clergy were now compelled to acknowledge Henry as 
protector and the only supreme head of the chui'ch. In this 
year, 1531, the divorce question was lirst brought before Parlia- 
ment, when the opinions of the universities were communicated 
to it. The House of Peers sent a remonstrating letter to the 
Pope warning him of what would follow if a divorce should not 
be granted. Catherine was asked if she would withdraw her 
appeal to Pome, and on her iirm refusal was removed from 
court. In 1532 Parliament proceeded in the work of clerical 
reform, taking its first step toward a breach with Home. From 
this time dates the Anglican schism. The convocation praying 
to tlie king: "May it please your Highness to ordain, in the 
present Parliament, that the obedience of your Highness, and 
of the people, be withdrawn from the See of Rome," that is, if 
the Pope should insist upon the payment of annates. But this 
did not prevent Parliament from limiting the legislative power 
of the convocation in spite of the clergy's opposition. Sir 
Thomas More immediatelj^ afterward resigned the chancellor- 
ship, and Archbishop Warham, after protesting against the 
doings of Parliament, soon after died. 

An offensive and defensive alliance between Francis and 
Henry was formed, 1532 ; the former agreed to send fifteen 
thousand troops to England sliould the emperor invade that 
country, and he assisted Henry in various ways. Scotland 
gave England great trouble at this time. 

The English court visited that of France, at Boulogne, 
whither Anne Boleyn accompanied the king. She was received 
by Francis as a queen, and he advised Henry to marry her on 
his return, which he did. The ceremony was pei-formed by 
the Bishop of Cov^entr^^ on November 14, 1532, Anne having 
previously been created Marchioness of Peml)roke. 

A papal brief soon appeared excommunicating Henry and 



1533-4] HENRY YIII. 2 



M 



Anne unless tliey should avoid all intercourse pending tlie de- 
cision of the divorce. 

Parliament met on April 12, 1533, passed the act of appeals 
directed against the papal authority, and intended to bear 
against Catherine's appeal to Rome. 

On May 10, 1533, Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
opened court at Ampthill, near the residence of Queen Cathe- 
rine, to examine into the validity of the marriage. The evi- 
dence of Prince Arthur's consunnnation of liis marriage was 
produced, the opinions of the miiversities were read, together 
with judgments pronounced two years previouslj", after which 
Cranmer pronounced sentence, and annulled Henry's marriage 
with Catherine as unlawful and invalid, and by a subsequent 
sentence he ratified the marriage with Anne Boleyn, who, a 
few days after was publicly crowned queen, with all the pomp 
.suitable to the ceremony, and on September 7th she was safely 
delivered of a daughter, named Elizabeth. Henry was so 
delighted with the birth of this child that he conferred upon 
lier the title of the Princess of Wales. 

Parliament met on November 3, 1534, and conferred on the 
king the title of the only supreme head on earth of the Church 
of England, and completed the union of England and Wales, 
by giving to that principality all the benefit of the English 
laws. 

Conspiracies against the king were formed, implicating both 
Catherine and Mary, and the throne was in great danger, from 
the ambition of some parties and the fanaticism of others. 

Ko prince in Europe was possessed of such absolute author- 
ity as Henry, not even the Pope himself, in his own capital, 
where he united both the civil and ecclesiastical powers. 

The spirit of heresy still appeared detestable as well as for- 
midaljle to Henry, and while his resentment against the See of 
Rome had corrected one considerable part of his early preju- 
dice, he had made it a point of honor never to relinquish 
the remainder. Separated as he was from the Catholic Church 
and Roman Pontiff, he still charged himself with maintaining 
the Catholic doctrine, and with guarding, by fire and sword, 
the imagined purity of his speculative principles. His minis- 
18 



274 HENRY VIII. [1535-6. 

ters and courtiers were of as motley a ehai-acter as liis conduct, 
and seemed to waver durino; liis whole reiii;n between the au- 
cient and the new religion. 

The queen, by interest as well as inclination, favored the 
Ileformers. Cromwell, who had been created Secretary of 
State, had embi'aced the same views, and Cranmer had secretly 
adopted the Protestant tenets, while the Duke of IS'orfolk ad- 
hered to the ancient faith, and Gardiner, Bishop of AVinchester, 
belonged to the same party. 

The ambiguity of the king's conduct, though it kept the 
courtiers in awe, served in the main to encourage the Protes- 
tants. 

John Fisher, Bishop of Pochester, was imprisoned in 1535, 
for ref usiuo- the oath reofardino; the succession, on which the 
Pope created luni cardinal, as a recompense for his faithful 
services to the Poman court, which so roused the indignation 
of Ilemy that he had him tried and found guilty of denying 
the king's supremacy, and he was executed June 23, 1535, for 
M'hich Henry was cited to appear at Pome within ninety days, 
to answer, and on Henry's failing to appear, the Pope excom- 
nnmicated him on August 30th, deprived him of his crown, laid 
the kingdom under iuterdic^t, declared his issue by Anne Boleyn 
illegitimate, dissolved all leagues with any Catholic princes, 
gave his kingdom to an invader, and commanded the nobility 
to take arms against him. 

Henry knew that he might expect any injury from Charles 
tllat it was in his power to inHict ; he therefore renewed his 
friendship with Francis, and these two monarchs made ad- 
vances to the princes of the Protestant leagues in Germany. 

During these negotiations an incident happened which seemed 
to open a way for a reconciliation between C'harles and Hemj. 
Queen Catherine died at Kimboltt>n on July 6, 153G, after a 
lingering illness, in the fiftieth year of her age. 

The emperor, believing the death of his aunt had removed 
all cause of quarrel, made overtures to Henry, but they were 
such as could not be accepted by that prince. 

Convocation had now passed a vote by a large majority for 
publishing a new translation of the Scriptures, which greatly 



1536.] HENRY VIII. 275 

pleased tlie Kefuriners, and while tliev were exulting in their 
success they met with a mortification which seemed to blast 
all their hopes. Their patroness, Anne Boleyn, no longer pos- 
sessed the king's favor. Henry had preserved his love for 
this lady during the six years that his prosecution of the di- 
vorce lasted, and the more obstacles he met with the more was 
he determined on pursuing his purpose ; but the affection 
which had subsisted and inci-eased, under difficulties, became 
satiated when he 'attained secure possession of his object; it 
then languished, and his heart became estranged from his wife. 
Anne's enemies soon perceived the fatal change, and they were 
ready to widen the breach. 

She had been lately delivered of a dead son, and Henry's 
extreme fondness for male issue being thus far disappointed, 
his temper ecpially violent and superstitions, was disposed to 
make the ^imocent mother answerable for the misfortune. 

But the chief means her enemies employed to inflame the 
king against her was his jealousy, Anne, though entirely in- 
nocent, and even virtuous in her conduct, had a certain gaiety, 
if not levity, of. character, which made her less cii'cumspect 
than her position required, ller education in France made her 
more liable to those freedoms, and it was with difficulty she 
conformed to the strict ceremonial of the English court. 
Henry's dignity was sometimes offended with her popular man- 
ners, and his mind was soon poisoned by her artful enemies. 
The Viscountess Ilocheford, wife to the queen's brothe]-, but 
who lived on bad terms with her sister-in-law, insinuated the 
most cruel suspicions into the king's mind, and as she was a 
woman of profligate character, she paid little regard to truth 
in the calumnies. She pretended that her own husband. was 
engaged in a criminal correspondence with his sister, and other- 
wise poisoned the king's mind. Ilis jealousy now laid hold of 
the slightest circumstances, and finding no particular object, 
vented his rage on every one who came within the range of 
his f ary. 

His love was now transferred to Jane, daughter of Sir John 
Seymour, a maid of honor to the queen — a young lady of great 
beauty and attractions, who had now entire ascendancy over 



276 HENRY VIII. [1536-9. 

him, and he was determined to sacrifice every tiling to the gi-ati- 
fication of this new passion, and was willing to listen to any 
impntation of guilt against the unfortunate Anne ; and, from a 
sliglit circumstance which happened at a tournament at Green- 
wich, he had her sent to the Tower, May 2, 1536. A few 
days afterward, she, with her brother, Lord Rocheford, were 
tried by a jury of peers for incest, found guilty, and on May 
10th beheaded, she declaring her innocence. The following 
day Henry married Jane Seymour ; his impatience to gratify 
this new passion caused him to forget all regard to decency. 

Henry, not satisfied with this cruel vengeance, annulled his 
marriage with Anne Boleyn and declared her issue illegitimate, 
and the succession to the crown settled on his issue by Jane 
Seymour, or any subsequent wife ; and if he died without chil- 
dren, he was empowered l)y his will or letters patent to dispose 
of the crown as he saw fit, all of which was ratified by Parlia- 
ment June 8, 1536. 

On Oetolier 12, 1537, the queen was delivered of a son, who 
was baptized by the name of Edward. The queen died two 
days after, but the king's affliction was drowned by the birth of 
an heir. On tlie IStli of the same month the young prince was 
created Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, and Earl of Chester. 

Ill 1538, the final dissolution of the monasteries took place, 
and the articles forming the new church in England was passed, 
estalilishing the doctrine of the real presence, forbidding the 
marriage of priests, the utility of private masses, and pro\-idiiig 
for the continuance of the confessional, and to extirpate from 
the kingdom all diversities of opinion in matters of religion. 

Henry, now anxious to form another matrimonial alliance, 
cast his eyes over the different courts of Europe, and, through 
the advice of Cromwell, turned his thoughts on a German 
Protestant princess — Anne, daughter of the Duke of Cleves. 
A flattering picture of the princess determined Henry to pro- 
pose to her father for her hand, and, after some opposition, 
negotiations were at last concluded, and Anne was sent over to 
England. The king, impatient to be satisfied with the appear- 
ance of his intended bride, came privately to Rochester, and 
got sight of her. He found her large and tall, but utterly des- 



15i0-l.] HENRY VIIL 



'ii 



titute of grace and beautj, and very unlike the picture. lie 
swore she was a great Flanders mare, and that he never could 
bear her any affection ; and, what was worse, he found she could 
s]3eak no language but Dutch, of which he was entirely ignorant. 

But, notwithstanding his dislike, he was advised, for motives 
of policy, to consummate the marriage, and it was celebrated 
on January 6, 1540, 

The king, becoming more disgusted with his wife after the 
marriage, determined to procm-e a divorce, on the ground that 
she had formerly been contracted in marriage by her father to 
the Duke of Lori-aine, although they were both under age at 
the time, and the contract afterward annulled by consent of 
both parties. On July 2Sth, Henry procured the divorce from 
Parliament, and on August 8, 1540, he married Catharine 
Howard, a niece of the Didce of Xorfolk, who now" ruled the 
king's councils. The turn which Henry had taken with regard 
to foreign affairs was extremely agreeable to his Catholic sub- 
jects, and they, being in the ascendant, contrilnited to the ruin 
of Cromwell and his execution, and a general persecution of 
the Protestants ; nor did he spare the Catholics who denied his 
supremacy. 

A rebellion broke out in Yorkshire in 1541, headed by Sir 
John Neville, but it was soon suppressed and the leaders exe- 
cuted. They were supposed to have been instigated by the 
intrigues of Cardinal Peginald Pole, and as he was beyond 
reach, Henry seized upon his brothers, and even his aged 
mother, the Countess of Salisbury, and had them executed be- 
cause they had corresponded with him. 

Henry had thought himself very happy in his new marriage. 
Tlie agreeable manners of the cpieen had entirely captivated his 
affections, and he made no secret of his attachment to her. 
But Catherine's conduct little merited this tenderness. One 
Lascelles gave infoi-mation to Archbishop Cranmer of her dis- 
solute life, and he, after taking advice of the other members of 
the council, conveyed it in wiiting to the king. 

The information stated that two servants of the Duchess- 
Dowager of Xorfolk, with whom Catherine had been educated, 
named Durham and Mannoc, had been admitted to her bed ; 



278 HENRY VIII. [1542-4. 

and also evidence of one Colepeper to the same privilege, since 
lier marriage ; and that the Lady Kocheford, the chief instru- 
ment in bringing Anne Boleyn to the block, was the queen's 
accomplice in most of her amours. 

The king at first could not believe the charge, but at once 
determined to sift it to the bottoui. He found the evidence so 
convinciug that he sunnnoned Parliament to take innnediate 
action, and on January 6, 1542, C-atherine was brought before 
that body. 

She at first denied her guilt, but being informed that a full 
discovei'y had been made, confessed. She was found gnilty, 
and, together with th-e Viscountess Kocheford, beheaded on 
Tower Hill. 

The sauio year a war broke out between England and Scot- 
land, which SDon ended in a disgraceful defeat of the latter, 
and the king, James V., died shortly afterward. At the same 
time his (jueen was delivered of a daughter, who afterward 
ascended the throne as Mary Queen of Scots. Henry and tlie 
Emperor Charles again formed an alliance, but, owing to French 
intrigue in Scotland, he made war with France, and Charles, in 
violation of his word, made peace with the latter country, while 
England continued the war nntil 1540. 

On July 12, 1513, Henry married his sixth and last w^ife, 
(Jatherine Parr, widow of Xevil, Lord Latimer, a woman of 
virtue and somewhat inclined to the Peformers. She was more 
successful than his other wives in retaining his favor. He suf- 
fered nnich from illness in the latter part of his life, and she 
faithfully attended liini. 

Henry, though now old and unwieldy, again crossed the sea, 
and captured Boulogne, 1514, and a great number of Scottish 
nobles fell into his hands, who wei'e set free on condition of 
advocating a marriage between his son Edward and the infant 
daughter of his late nephew, James Y. The treaty was agreed 
to, and stipulated that the qneen should remain in Scotland 
imtil her tenth year, and then she was to be sent to England to 
be educated ; and that the kingdom, notwithstanding its nnion 
with England, should stid retain its laws and privileges. But it 
was never carried out. 



1545-7.] HENRY VIII. 279 

IIenry*'s parliaments had ever been most discreditably snbser- 
vient to him, the fact being that a large number of the commons 
were his servants, or named by him. Three times did. they re- 
lieve him of his debts ; three several times did they alter the 
succession to the throne, and make it treason to cast a donljt on 
any of his marriages beyond the tirst. They allowed his procla- 
mations to have the force of law, and finally they surrendered 
the last shadow of independence by permitting him actually to 
dispose of his dominions by will as freely as any gentleman 
might dispose of a private estate. He acted upon this, and 
named his son as his successor ; but also enabled his two daugh- 
ters, Mary and Elizabeth, to inherit the orown, though, bv his 
own wish, they had both been declared illegitimate, and the 
mother of one had died of a broken heart, and the other had 
perished on the scaffold. 

But the last act of his life was one of the worst. No one 
had rendered him greater services than the Duke of Norfolk ; 
yet he, too, was marked out for destruction, and only Henry's 
death saved him from the block. 

Henry, like his father, when his end drew near, i-cliiiquished 
a small part of the spoil, and devoted it to purposes of charity. 
Thus he l)estowed on the citizens of London the original endow- 
ment of St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, and Bethlelieni Hos- 
pitals, all monastic property, that had cost him nothing. 

No considerations of justice, honor, or charity seem ever to 
have had power to turn him away from any course tluit he pro- 
posed to himself, and the utter subserviency of his parliaments 
and his judges enabled him to become as absolute and as 
cruel a tyrant as ever afflicted a nation. 

Henry made a will a month before his death, in which he 
left the crown, first to Prince Edward, tlien to Lady Mary, and 
next to the Lady Elizabeth. He died on January 28, 154T, in 
the fifty-fifth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of liis reign, 
and was succeeded by his only son Edward. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : James IV., James Y., 
Mary ; France : Louis XH., Francis L ; Emperors of the West, 
Maximilian, Charles V. 



2S0 EDWARD VI. [1547. 

Edward VI, — A.D. 1547-1553. 

Bom at Hampton Court, October 12, 1537. 

Crowned, February 25, 1547. 

Died at Greenwich Palace, July 6, 1553 ; was buried at Westminster. 

Unmarried. 

Edwakd, the on]y living son of Plenry YIII, and Jane Sey- 
mour, his third queen, was born in the Palace of Greenwich on 
October 12, 153T. lie was little cared for by the three step- 
mothers he had in (juick succession, but at the age of six years 
was entrusted to the learned tutors, Anthony Cooke and John 
Cheke, and he made great progress in divinity, philosophy, 
Greek, and Latin. 

Henry, in his Avill, fixed the majority of the prince at eighteen 
years, and appointed sixteen executors, to whom, during the 
minority, he entrusted the government of the kingdoni, who at 
their first meeting determined to depart from the wishes of the 
late king, as it was feared the government would lose its dignity 
for want of some head who might represent the royal majesty, 
who might receive ambassadors, addresses, etc., and whose name 
might be used in proclamations and orders. 

They therefore bestowed upon Edward Seymour, Duke of 
Somerset, the title of Governor of his Majesty, lord protector 
of his realm, and lieutenant-general of all his armies. 

Sir Thomas Seymour, brother of the duke, was created Lord 
Sej-mour of Sudley, and appointed loi'd high admiral. 

The govei-nment was almost entirely Protestant, and its first 
object was to complete the religious revolution and establish a 
church independent of the See of Pome. 

Somerset, to increase his power, declared that the vote of the 
executors, choosing him Protector, was not sufficient foundation 
for his authority, lie procured a patent from the young king, 
by which he entirel}^ overturned the will of Henry YllL, pro- 
duced a total revolution in the government, and seems even to 
have subverted all the laws of the kingdom. He named him- 
self Protector, with full regal power, and appointed a council 
consisting of all the executors cjf the king's will, except the Earl 
of Southampton ; he reserved the power of naming any other 



1547.] EDWARD VI. Og^ 

councillors at pleasure, and bound himself to consult only those 
he thought proper. 

The ]*rotector had long been regarded as a secret partisan of 
the Reformers, and being now freed from restraint, he feared 
not to show his intentions of correcting all abuses in the ancient 
religion, and of adopting still more of the Protestant innova- 
tions. He took care that all those persons entrusted with the 
young king's education should be attached to the same prin- 
ciples, and as Edward showed a zeal for every kind of literature, 
especially theological, far beyond his years, ail men foresaw, in 
the course of his reign, the total abolition of the Catholic faith 
in England, and they early began to declare themselves in favor 
of those tenets which were likely to become, in the end, en- 
tirely prevalent. 

As soon as affairs were arranged as to the settlement of the 
government in England, the Protector made preparations for 
the invasion of Scotland, to execute, if possible, the project of 
uniting the two kingdoms by marriage, on which the late king 
had been so intent, and which he had reconnnended to his 
executors with his dying breath. He levied an army of eigh- 
teen thousand men, and equipped a fleet of sixty sail, one-half 
of which wci'e ships of Avar, and the other laden witii provisions 
and ammunition. lie also published a manifesto, in which he 
stated all the arguments for a union of the two countries ; but 
he soon found that all his arguments would be in vain, for the 
queen-do wagei-'s attachment to France and the Poman Catholic 
religion would render ineffectual all negotiations for the in- 
tended marriage. lie found himself obliged to try the force of 
arms. lie therefore ci-ossed the borders, and on September 15, 
1547, fought the battle of Pinkie, completely defeating the 
Scotch army, under the Earls of Angus, Arran, and Huntley, the 
Scotch losing ten thousand killed and two thousand prisoners. 
The regent and queen-dowager fled to Stirling Castle. On the 
Protectors return to London he called a parliament, November 
4, 1547, by which his own power was conflrmed and extended, 
the statutes of the Six Articles repealed, prisoners under it were 
released, and exiles were recalled. Preaching, which had been 
rare in Catholic times, was enforced, the statutes of Richard II. 



2S2 EDWARD VI. [1547-0. 

and Ilenrj IV. a2;ainst the Lollards were repealed, Avith all the 
acts in matters of religion passed under Ilenrj VIII. , except 
those directed against the papal supremacy. 

By order in council, images which Lutlier had tolerated as 
aids to devotion, and of which Cranmer vindicated a moderate 
nse, were ordered to be removed, that candles should no longer 
be carried about on Candlemas Day, ashes on Ash-Wednesday, 
or palms on Palm Sunday. 

The uniformity of public worship was established, and all 
ministers were enjoined to use only the Boi^k of Common Prayer. 
The English Bil)le, with Erasmus's commentary on the gospels, 
was placed in every church for the use of the people. The Eng- 
lish clergy were emancipated from celibacy, though it was re- 
commended to them to live separate from the ln»ud of marriage, 
for their own estimation, and that they may attend soleh' to the 
administration of the gospel. 

Lord Seymour was a man of insatiable ambition, and though 
thought to possess superior capacity to the Protector, did not 
enjoy the confidence of the pe()])]e. By his flattery and address 
he had so insinuated himself into the good graces of tlic queen- 
dowager that, soon after the king's death, she married him, and 
not many months after died in chiklbirth; he then paid bis ad- 
dresses to Lady Elizabeth, then in her sixteenth year, but as 
Henry VIII. had excluded his daughters from all hopes of suc- 
cession if tfhey married without the consent of the Council, 
which Seymour could never hope to obtain, it was now said he 
meant to effect his purpose by expedients still more rash and 
criminal, and having been discovered in a conspiracy against his 
brother, the Protector, and to get possession of the king's per- 
son, he was tried for treason, found guilty, and executed, March 
20, 1519. 

The King of France, taking advantage of the distractions in 
England, made an attempt to reco^'er Boulogne and the territory 
which Henry VIII. had conquered from France, on which the 
Protector endeavored to fortify himself with the alliance of the 
emperor, and lie sent over Secretary Paget to Brussels, where 
Charles then kept his court, to assist the English ambassador in 
the negotiation. But that prince thought it unsuitable to enter 



1549.] EDWARD VI. 2S3 

into confederacy witli a nation wiiicli had broken off all connec- 
tion with the Chnrch of Rome, declined the advances, and 
denied the applications of the ambassadors. Somerset, disap- 
pointed in his assistance, was inclined to conchide a peace with 
France and Scotland, as he was not in a condition to maintain 
such ruinous wars, particulai-ly as ho thought there no longer 
remained any object of hostility. The Scots had sent aw^ay 
their queen to France, and she was now betrothed to the 
daupliin, and could not complete the marriage contract with 
Edward ; and as Henry VIII. had stipulated to restore Boulogne 
in 1554, it seemed a matter of small moment to anticipate, by 
a few years, the execution of the treaty ; but when he proposed 
these reasons to the council, he met with strong opposition from 
his enemies, who seeing him unable to support the war, were 
determined for that very reason to oppose all proposals for 
peace. 

Factions now ran high at court, and matters were drawing to 
an issue fatal to the autliority of the Protector. 

The Catholic party, wdio retained their influence with the 
lo,wer orders, were his declared enemies, and took advantage of 
every opportunity to decry his conduct. The attainder and ex- 
ecution of his brother had an odious aspect ; the introduction 
of German troops into the kingdom was represented in the 
worst colors ; the great estates which he had suddenly acquired 
of the church, and of the crown, rendered him obnoxious ; and 
the palace he was building in the Strand, served by its nuigni- 
iicence, and still more by other circumstances which attended it, 
to expose him to the censure of the public. 

All these imprudences were remarked by Somerset's enemies, 
who resolved to take advantage of them, and on October 0, 1549, 
a conspiracy was formed against him, led by Dudley, Earl of 
AYarwick, Lord St. John, the Earls of Southampton and Arun- 
del, with live other members of the council. They met at Ely 
House, and took upon themselves the whole power of the gov- 
ernment, and began to act independently of the Protector, whom 
they represented as the authoi- of every public grievance and 
disorder. They wrote letters to the chief nol)i]ity and gentry 
hi England, informing them of their measures, and asking for 



2S4 EDWARD VI. [1549-51. 

their assistance ; they sent for the mayor and aldermen of Lon- 
d(jn, and directed them to obey their orders, and laid the same 
instructions on the lieutenant of the Tower. The next day the 
chancellor and other high officers of the state joined the mal- 
content councillors. As soon as the Protector heard of their 
defection he removed the king from Hampton Court Palace to 
Windsor Castle, and arming his friends and servants seemed 
resolute to defend himself against all his enemies. But finding 
that no man of rank, except Cranmer and Paget, adhered to 
him ; that the people did not rise ; that the city and Tower had 
declared against him, he lost all hopes of success, and applied to 
his enemies for pardon and forgiveness. 

Somerset was sent to the Tower, confessed on his knees to 
the council all the charges made against him, which he imputed 
to his folly and indiscretion rather than to any malignity of in- 
tention. He was deprived of-all his offices, fined £2,000 a year, 
and the prosecution was carried no further against him, and 
after a short time he vv^as liberated. 

The council of regency found themselves involved in the 
same difficulties that embarrassed the Protector. 

The wars with France and Scotland could not be prosecuted, 
and it was now acknowledged that there could be no object in 
their continuance, and agents were sent over to France, with 
full powers, to negotiate. The French king absolutely refused 
to pay the two million crowns, which his pi-edecessor had ac- 
knowledged to be due to the crown of England, and said he 
never would consent to render himself tributary to any prince, 
but he offered a sum for the immediate restitution of Boulogne, 
and four hundi'ed thousand crowns M^ere at last agreed on ; 
Scotland was included in the treaty. Xo sooner was peace con- 
cluded with France, than a close alliance was formed, and an 
agreement of marriage was come to between Edward and Eliza- 
beth, the daughter of the French king. The inrention of mar- 
rying the king to a daughter of Henry 11. , a violent persecutor 
of the Protestants, was not acceptable to that party in England, 
but in all other respects the council was steady in supporting 
the Reformation, and i]i enforcing the laws against the Poman- 
ists. 



1551.] EDWARD VI. 285 

Several prelates were still attached to that communion, and 
though they made some concessions, in order to save their 
bishoprics, they delayed, as much as they could, the execution 
of rhe new laws, and gave countenance to such incumhents as 
were negligent or refractory. A resolution was passed to de- 
pose those prelates, and the execution was easy, as they held 
their conmiissions during the king's pleasure. It was thouglit 
proper to begin with Gardiner, in order to strike terror into the 
rest. The method of proceeding against him was violent, and 
had scarcely any color of law or justice. 

Instructions had been given to him to embody, in a sermon, 
the duty of obedience to a king, even during his minority, and 
because he had neglected this order he was thrown into prison 
and there detained for two years, without being accused of any 
crime except disobedience to this arbitrary command ; he was 
subsequently tried, deprived of his bishopric, and kept in close 
custody. Other bishops were deposed in like manner. 

An order was next issued by the council for purging all libra- 
ries of missals, legends, and other superstitious volumes, and 
rare books and manuscripts were destroyed without distinction. 
Volumes of divinity suffered for their rich binding; those of 
literature were condemned as useless ; those of geometry and 
astronomy as supposed to be nothing but necromancy. The 
University had no power to stop these barbarous violences, and 
feared every moment to be swallowed up by the Earl of AVar- 
wick and his associates. 

Though every one yielded to the authority of the council, the 
Lady Mary could never be brought to compliance, and she still 
continued to hear mass, and rejected the new liturgy, and de- 
clared herself willing to endure death rather than relinquish her 
religion. The emperor remonstrated in her behalf, and even 
threatened hostilities, if liberty of conscience were refused her. 
But though the council, sensible that the kingdom was in no 
condition to support with honor such a war, was desirous to 
comply, they found great difficulty to overcome the scruples of 
the young king, who had been educated with such violent abhor- 
rence for the mass and other popish rites, which he considered 
impious and idolatrous. He thought he should participate in 



286 EDWARD VI. [1551. 

the sin if he allowed its continuance. When at last Crannier, 
Ridley, and Poinet prevailed somewhat over his opposition, he 
bnrst into tears, lamenting his sister's obstinacy, and bewailing 
his own hard fate that he must suffer her to continue in such an 
abominu1)le mode of worship. 

The Earl of A\^arwick, not contented with the station he had 
attained, carried his pretensions still higher. Jle gained many 
partisans who were ready and willing to second him in every 
enterprise. The last Earl of Xorthumberland died without 
issue, and Sir Thomas Percy, his brother, had been attainted ; 
the title was therefore extinct and the estates vested in the 
crown. Warwick procured to himself a grant of those splendid 
possessions, and induced the king to create him Duke of Xorth- 
iimberland, which was only another step toward his great ambi- 
tion. ■ Finding that the Duke of Somerset, though degraded 
from office aiid even lessened in public opinion, still enjoyed 
some share of popularity, he determined to ruin the man whom 
he now regarded as the chief obstacle to the attainment of his 
liopes. He therefore secretly gained many of the fi'iends and 
servants of that unhappy nobleman to his side, who reported 
every word and expression made use of by the duke, which he 
used to his own purpose, and on October 10, 1551, Somerset, 
together with mend;)ers of his family and other friends, were 
seized and thrown into the Tower. lie was accused of having 
formed a design to raise an insurrection in the north, to seize 
the Tower and raise a rebellion in London, and that he had 
once laid a scheme of murdering the Duke of ]^orthuniberland, 
the Earls of Xorthampton and Pembroke. 

lie was brought to trial ; twenty-seven peers composed the 
jury, of whom the three he was charged to have intended mur- 
dering formed part. lie was accused of h'igh treason on account 
of the rebellion and acquitted, no witnesses being examined 
in court. He acknowledged that he liad expressed his intention 
of murdering the three noblemen, but had not formed any reso- 
lution on that head ; he was brought in guilty of felony and 
condemned to death. 

Care was taken by I^orthumberland's emissaries to poison the 
young king's mind against his uncle, lest he should relent and 



155 ?-3.] EDWARD VI. 2S7 

pardon liim ; no access was given to any of Soniersefs friends, 
and by a series of occupations and amusements the king was 
kept from reflecting on the sentence, and on January 22, 1552, 
Somerset was beheaded on Tower Hill, surrounded by thousands 
who to the hist moment hoped for his pardon. 

A new parliament was called on March 1, 1553. Edward 
was now in feeble health, and ]N^orthumberland represented to 
that prince that his two half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, had 
both of them been declared illegitimate by act of Parliament, 
and though Henry, by his will, had restored them to a place in 
the succession, the nation would never submit to see the throne 
of England filled by a bastard ; they were his sisters by half 
blood only, and even if they were legitimate conld not enjoy 
the crown as Ins heirs and successors. 

That Mary Queen of Scots stood exclnded by the late king's 
will, and being an alien, had lost by law all right of inheriting ; 
not to mention that she was betrothed to the Dauphin of France, 
she wonld, by her succession, render England, as she had 
already done Scotland, a province of France. That the certain 
consequence of lii.s sister Mary's succession, or that of the Queen 
of Scots, would be the abolition of the Protestant religion and the 
repeal of the laws of the Reformation and the usurpation of the 
Koman Catholic religion and idolatry of the Church of Pome ; 
and fortunately' for England, after these three princesses were 
excluded by such good reasons, the succession devolved on the 
Marchioness of Dorset, elder daughter of the Princess Mary, 
sister of the late king, and the Duke of Suffolk ; that the next 
heir to the maix-hioness was the Lady Jane Gray, a lady of the 
most amiable character, accomplished in literature and religion, 
and there was no reason why the king should not exercise the 
same power which his' father enjoyed, and leave her the crown 
by letters patent. These reasonings made impressions on 
the young king, particularly as he feared the consequences 
should a bigoted Catholic like his sister Mary succeed to the 
throne. 

Korthumberland next fortified himself by causing the Mar- 
quis of Dorset to be created Duke of Suffolk, that title being- 
extinct, and persuading the new duke and duchess to give their 



2S8 LADY JANE GRAY. [1553. 

daughter, the Lady Jane Graj, in marriage to his fourth son, 
the Lord Guilford Dudley. 

Edward liad been seized the previous year with measles, then 
with small-pox, but having perfectly recovered, the nation enter- 
tained hopes that these diseases would serve to confirm his 
liealth. lie had subsecpiently made a journey through a part 
of his hingdom, and was afterward seized with a cough, which 
proved obstinate. The general attachment to the young king, 
joined to the hatred borne the Dudleys, made it remarked that 
Edward had declined in health from the moment that Lord 
Robert Dudley had been put near him in the quality of Gentle- 
man of the Bed-chamber. 

The failing state of Edward's health made ^Northumberland 
the more intent on the execution of his project. He removed 
all but his own emissaries from about the king, and, by all his 
artifices, pi-evailed upon the young prince to give his final con- 
sent to the projected settlement. The leading judges and min- 
isters were summoned, and, after protesting, at last yielded to 
the earnest solicitation of tlie king. Letters patent were 
granted, the two princesses, Mary and Elizabeth, were set aside, 
and the crown was settled on the heirs of the Duchess of Suf- 
folk. After the settlement was made, Edward visibly declined 
everv day, and on July (?, 1553, he expired at Greenwich Palace, 
in the sixteenth year of bis age and sixth of his reign. 

Contemporary Hitlers. — Scotland : Mary ; France : Francis 
I., Henry II. ; Emperor of the West : Charles V. (Charles Y. 
of Spain). 

Lady Jane Gray. 

l^ORTiiUMBERLAND, Sensible of the opposition which he must 
expect, had carefully concealed the conveyance of the crown 
made by Edward, and in order to bring the two princesses into 
his power, he took the precaution to require tJie council, before 
the king's death, to write to them in his name, desiring their 
attendance, on pretence that his infirm state of health required 
the assistance of their counsel and the consolation of their com- 
pany. Edward expired before their arrival, but Xorthumber- 
land, in order to make the princesses fall into the snare, kept 



1553.] LADY JANE GRAY. 2S9 

tlie king's death secret, and the Ladj Mary had reached ITod- 
desdon, within half a day's journey of the court, wlien the Earl 
of Arundel sent her private intelligence both of her brother's 
death and of the conspiracy formed against her. She inime- 
diatelj^ retired by quick journeys to Kenninghall, in Xorfolk ; 
then to Franilingham, in Suffolk, where she purposed to embark 
for Flanders in case she should find it impossible to defend her 
right of succession. 

She wrote letters to the nobility and principal gentry in every 
county in England, connnanding them to assist her ; promised 
them pardon for past offences, and required them immediately 
to give orders for proclaiming her in London. 

Northumberland found that further dissimulation was fruit- 
less. He went to Sion House, accompanied by the Duke of 
Suffolk, Earl of Pembroke, and others of the nobility, and he 
approached the Lady Jane, who resided there, with all the 
respect usually paid to the sovereign. 

Jane was, in a great measure, ignorant of these transactions, 
and it was with equal grief and surprise that she received in- 
telligence of them. She was a lady amiable, engaging, and 
accomplished, and being of equal age of the late king, had re- 
ceived all her education with him. She was passionately fond 
of the arts and sciences, and had a tender regard for her hus- 
band, who was deserving of her affection, and was not given to 
flattery or ambition ; so that the intelligence of her elevation 
to the throne was no wise agreeable to her. She even refused 
to accept the present ; pleaded the preferable title of the two 
princesses, expressed her dread of the consequences attending 
so dangerous an enterprise, and desired to remain in the private 
station in which she was born. Overcome at last by the per- 
suasions and entreaties of her father and father-in-law, and, 
above all, of her husband, she submitted to their will, and was 
prevailed on to relinquish her own judgment. It was then 
usual for the kings of England, after their accession, to pass 
the first days in the Tower, and Northumberland immediately 
conveyed thither the new sovereign. 

All the councillors were obliged to attend her to that fortress, 
and by this means became, in reality, prisoners in the hands of 
19 



290 LADY JANE GRAY. [1553.- 

Nortliumberland, wliose will they were obliged to obey. Orders 
were given to the council to proclaim Jane throughout the 
kingdom, but they were only executed in London and the 
neighborhood on July 10, 1553. Ko applause ensued. 

The people of Suffolk, meanwhile, paid their attendance on 
Mary. As they were attached to the reformed religion, they 
expressed their fears of her course toward it, but Mary assured 
them she never meant to change the laws of England. They 
then enlisted themselves in her cause with zeal and affection. 

The nobility and gentry daily flocked to her, and brought her 
reinforcements. Sir Edward Hastings, who had received a 
comuMssion from the council to make levies for Jane in Buck- 
inghamshire, carried over his troops, amounting to four thousand 
men, and joined Mary. 

Even a fleet which had been sent by Northumberland to lie 
off the coast of Suffolk declared for that princess also. North- 
umberland, now seeing danger gathering around him, departed 
for Eury St. Edmunds, where his forces were gathered, and 
finding they only numbered about six thousand men, a body 
too weak to encounter Mary's forces, inmiberiiig double his 
army, wrote to the council desiring them to send him reinforce- 
ments. That body immediately laid hold of the opportunity 
to free themselves from confinement. They left the Tower as 
if by Xorthumberland's commands, and met at Baynard Castle 
to deliberate upon throwing off his usur2>ed tyranny. Arundel 
opened the conference by proposing a speedy return to the 
duty Mdiich they owed to their lawful sovereign, which was 
immediately agreed to. The mayor and aldermen of London 
were immediately sent foi', who showed great alacrity in obeying 
the ordei's they received to proclaim Mary, and the people ex- 
pressed their approbation by shouts of applause ; even Suffolk, 
who commanded in the Tower, opened the gates and declared 
for Queen Mary. 

Lady Jane, after the vain pageantry of wearing the crown 
for ten days, returned to private life with satisfaction, and 
Northumberland, despairing of success and deserted by his fol- 
lowers, had also declared for Mary. 



1553.] MARY. 291 

Mary— A. D. 1553-1558. 

Born at Greenwich, February 18, 1516. 

Crowned November 30, ISo.'j. 

Married Philip, Prince of Spain, son of the Emperor Charles V., July 25, 1554. 

Died in Loudon, November 17, 1558. No issue. 

Buried at Westminster. 

Mary, eldest dangliter of Henry VIII. by his first wife, 
Catherine of Aragon, first Queen Regnant of Enghmd, was 
born at the PaLice of Greenwich, February 18, 1516, and pro- 
claimed queen July 18, 1553. 

On the queen's approach to London on August 3, 1553, she 
was received everywhere by the people with the greatest ex- 
pressions of loyalty and attachment, and the Lady Elizabeth 
met her at the head of a thousand horse, which that princess 
had levied in order to support their joint title against the 
usurper. 

Mary's first act on arriving in London was to give orders for 
taking into custody the Duke of Northumberland, who was 
committed to the Tower, together with his three sons and sev- 
eral other noblemen. The queen afterward confined the Duke 
of Suffolk, Lady Jane Gray and her husband. Lord Guilford 
Dudley ; but she was desirous, in the beginning of her reign, 
to acquire popularity by the appearance of clemency, and be- 
cause the councillors pleaded constraint as an excuse for their 
treason, she extended her pardon to most of them. Suffolk 
even recovered his liberty. 

But the guilt of Northumberland was too great, as well as his 
ambition too dangerous, to promise him any reasonable hopes 
of life. He was tried, found guilty of treason, and executed on 
August 22, 1553. He died professing the Catholic religion. 
Sentence was also pronounced against Lady Jane Gray and 
Lord Guilford Dudle}', but without any present intention of 
putting it into execution. 

When Mary first arrived in the Tower, the Duke of Norfolk, 
Courtney, son of the Earl of Exeter, Gardiner, Bonner, and 
Tonstal all appeared before her, and implored her clemency 
and protection. They wei"e all iimnediately restored to liberty, 



292 MARY. [1553. 

and admitted to her confidence and favor. Norfolk's attainder 
was made nnll and invalid ; Courtney soon after was created 
Earl of Devonshire ; Gardiner, Bonner, Tonstal, Day, Heath, 
and Yesey were reinstated in their sees, and, on pretence of dis- 
couraging controversy, all preachers throughout England were 
silenced. Ilolgate, Archbishop of York, Bishops Coverdale, 
Tlidley, and Hooper were thrown into prison. The zealous 
bishops and priests were encouraged in their forwai'dness to 
revive the mass, though contrary to existing laws; the judges 
who had shown consistency in defending the queen's title, in 
the granting of letters patent by Edward to Jane Gray, lost all 
their merit by an opposition to those illegal practices, and were 
cast into prison. 

The men of Suffolk were browbeaten, because they presumed 
to plead the promise which the queen, when they enlisted them- 
selves in her service, had given them, of maintaining the re- 
formed religion, and though she promised in public to tolerate 
those who differed from her, men foresaw that this promise 
would prove but a feeble security when set in opposition to 
religious prejudices. 

A report being spread that Archbishop Cranmer, in order to 
pay court to the queen, had promised to ofiiciate in the Latin 
service, the archbishop, to deny this aspersion, published a 
manifesto in which he called the mass a device of the devil to 
persecute Christ and His true religion, etc., for which he was 
thrown into prison, tried, and sentence of high treason passed 
against him, on the ground that he concurred with Lady Jane 
Gray in opposing the queen's succession, and he was reserved 
for sentence. 

The leading foreign Reformed preachers were silenced, and 
ordered to leave the country, and several English Protestants took 
shelter in foreign parts. Mary was crowned ISTovember 30, 1553. 

Parliament met on October 5, 1553, and it was soon seen that 
the majority of that body would be obsequious to Mary's de- 
signs, and as the peers were generally attached to the court 
fi'om interest, or expectations, little opposition was expected 
from that quarter. 

The two Houses of Parliament were opened by the celebra- 



1553.] MARY. O93 

tion of the mass in Latin, although abolished by act of Parlia- 
ment. The first bill passed rescinded every species of treason 
not contained in the statute of Edward III., and of felony that 
did not subsist before Henry YIII. Parliament next declared 
the queen to be legitimate, ratified the marriage between Henry 
and Catherine, annulled the divorce pronounced ■ by Cranmer ; 
all the statutes of King Edward VI. in regard to religion were 
repealed in one vote. Mary's marriage was of the next impor- 
tance. There were three on which it was supposed that she had 
deliberated upon ; the first person proposed to her was Court- 
ney, Earl of Devonshire, who, being an Englishman, could not 
fail to be acceptable to the nation. Hints were dropped to him, 
but he neglected his opportunities, evidently preferring the 
Lady Elizabeth, which occasioned great coldness in Mary to- 
ward him, and a declared animosity against Elizabeth, and that, 
with her attachment to the reformed religion, exposed her to 
great danger. 

Cardinal Reginald Pole, wdio had never taken priest's orders, 
was another party proposed to the queen, and there appeared 
many reasons to induce her to make choice of this prelate ; l>ut 
the cardinal, being in the decline of life, was represented to her 
as unqualified for the bustle of court and the hurry of business. 
But being desirous to reconcile herself and her kingdom to the 
Holy See, requested the Pope, Julius HI., to appoint Pole 
legate at her court. 

Xo sooner did the Emperor Charles hear of the death of 
Edward, and the accession of his kinswoman Mary to the 
crown of England, than he formed the scheme of acquiring 
that kingdom to his family. 

His son Philip was a widower, and though he was only 
twenty-seven years of age, eleven years younger than the queen, 
this objection it was hoped would be overlooked, and there was 
no reason to despair of her still having issue. 

The emperor, therefore, immediately sent over an agent to 
signify his intentions to Mary, who, pleased with the support 
of so powerful an alliance, and glad to unite herself more closely 
with her mother's family, to which she was always strongly at- 
tached, readily accepted the proposal, on wdiich Parliament sent 



294 MARY. [1553, 

a committee to remonstrate against such a dangerous alliance, 
when Mary, to prevent further applications of the same kind, 
dissolved that body, December 0, 1553. 

The new laws in regard to religion were put into execution, 
the mass was everywhere re-established, marriage was declared 
incompatible with any spiritual office, and tlu'ee-fourths of the 
clergy, on that account, were deprived of their livings, and 
were forbidden to take the oath of supremacy established by 
the laws of Henry VIII. 

This violent and sudden cliange in religion filled the Protes- 
tants with great alarm, but the Spanish marriage was a matter 
of more general concern, and spread universal disct>ntent and 
fears for tlie liberty and independence of the nation. To ob- 
viate all disturbance, the articles of marriage were drawn as 
favorable as possible for the interest and security of England. 
It was agreed that, though Philip should have the title of 
king, the administration should be entirely in the queen, that 
no foreigner should enjoy any office in the kingdom ; that no 
innovation should be made in English laws, customs, or privi- 
leges ; that Philip could not carry the queen abroad without 
her consent, nor any of her children without the consent of the 
nobility ; that £60,000 a year should be settled as her jointure ; 
that the male issue of this marriage should inherit together 
with England, Ihirgundy, and the Low Countries, and that if 
Don Carlos, Philip's son by a former marriage, should die, and 
his line be extinct, the cpieen's issue, whether male or female, 
should inherit Spain, Sicily, Milan, and all the other domin- 
ions of Philip. 

These articles, wlien published, gave no satisfaction to the 
nation; it was said the emperor would agree to any tei-ms to 
get possession of England, and then had no intention of observ- 
ing them. That the Xetherlands, Milan, Sicily, and jS'aples, 
groaned under the burden of Spanish t^^ranny. and Philip 
would reduce England to the most abject servitude. These 
complaints being spread everywhere prepared the people for a 
rebellion, and had any foreign power given them encourage- 
ment, or any great man appeared to head them, the conse- 
quences would have proved fatal to the queen's authority. 



1554.] MARY. 295 

A rebellion broke ont, led by Sir Thomas Wyat in Kent, and 
Sir Peter Carew in Devonshire. They engaged the Duke of 
Suffolk, by the hopes of recovering the crown for the Lady 
Jane, to attempt a rising in the Midhmd counties, but owing to 
the impatience of Carew, each section was suppressed before 
they could act in concert ; the leaders, together with four hun- 
dred other rebels, were executed on February 6, 1554. 

This rebellion proved fatal to Lady Jane Gray and her hus- 
band. The Duke of Suffolk's rising and guilt was imputed to 
her, and the queen was now determined to remove every person 
from whom the least danger could be expected, and on July 
12, 1554, Lady Jane and Lord Guilford Dudley were exe- 
cuted. 

The Lady Elizabeth was now treated with great harshness by 
iier sister, and many marks of disrespect had been shown her. 
She was ordered to take place at court, after the Countess of 
Lennox and Duchess of Suffolk, as if she was not legitimate^ 
a-nd soon after Wyat's rebellion she was sent to the Tower. 
In order to send her out of the kingdom a marriage was offered 
her with the Duke of Savoy, which she declined ; she was then 
committed to custody, and sent with a strong guard to Wood- 
stock, where she was confined. 

The Duke of Suffolk and Lord Thomas Gray were tried, 
found guilty of treason, and executed. Sir Nicholas Throg- 
morton was tried at Guildhall, but there being no satisfactory 
evidence against him, he was acquitted, which so enraged the 
queen that she reconnnitted him to the Tower, where he re- 
mained a long time. The jury that acquitted him M'ere sum- 
moned before the council, and then connuitted to prison, and 
fined £l-,000 apiece. This violence proved fatal to several of 
them. 

The queen now filled the Tower and all the prisons with no- 
bility and gentry, for whom she had the least suspicion, and 
finding she ^vas now universally hated, she determined to dis- 
able the people from resistance, by seizing all their arms and 
storing them in forts and castles. 

A parliament was called to meet in London, April 5, 1554, 
and the Empei'or Charles sent over the sum of four hundred 



296 MARY. [1554. 

thousand crowns to bribe the members who opposed the 
Spanish marriage, and not to give the public any ahirm, the 
queen, notwithstanding her bigotry, resumed the title of Su- 
preme Head of the Church, which she had dropped three 
months previous. 

At last came the moment so impatiently waited for ; Philip 
had landed at Southampton. He journeyed to London, and 
they were married at Westminster, July 25, 1554. From thence 
they went to Windsor Castle, where they afterward resided. 
Philip's behavior was not calculated to remove the prejudices 
which the English people had entertained against him. 

He was distant, reserved, and overbearing ; took no notice of 
the salutes of the highest nobility, and so entrenched himself in 
form and ceremony that he was quite inaccessible. 

The zeal of the Catholics, the influence of Spanish gold, the 
power of the court, together with the intrigues of Gardiner, had 
procured the queen a House of Commons to her satisfaction. 

Cardinal Pole had arrived in England as legate. His first 
act was to invite Parliament to reconcile themselves and the 
kingdom to the Holy See. 

Both houses voted an address to Philip and Mary, acknowl- 
edging that they had been guilty of a most horrible defection 
from the true church, professing a sincere repentance, and de- 
claring their resolution to repeal all laws enacted in prejudice 
to the Church of Pome, and praying their majesties that, since 
they were happily uninfected witli that criminal schism, they 
would intercede with the Holy Father for his absolution and for- 
giveness. The request was easily granted. The legate, in the 
name of His Holiness, gave the Parliament and kingdom abso- 
lution, and freed them from all censures, and received them 
again into the bosom of the Holy Mother Church. Par- 
liament then repealed the former statutes enacted against the 
Pope's authority, with the understanding that all the abbey and 
church lands previously taken should remain with their pi-esent 
possessors. Having secured those lands, they revived tlie old 
sanguinary laws against heretics, also several statutes against 
seditious words and rumors, and made it treason to imagine or 
attempt the death of Philip during his marriage with the queen, 



1555.] MARY. 297 

but refused to declare Philip as presumptiv^e heir to the throne, 
or consent to his coronation. 

Philip, sensible of the feeling against him, endeavored to 
gain popularity by procuring the release of the Lady Eliza- 
beth, and protecting her from the spite and malice of the 
queen, as well as the release of several other prisoners of dis- 
tinction. 

The queen now believed she was pregnant, and Parliament 
passed a law making Philip protector to the heir, in case of the 
death of the queen ; but it only proved to be the commence- 
ment of a dropsy, from whicli she ultimately died, and, finding 
she could obtain no further concessions, dissolved Parliament 
January 16, 1555. 

It was now determined to let loose the laws in their full 
vigor against the reformed religion, and England was soon filled 
with scenes of horror, which have ever since rendered the 
Catholic religion the object of general detestation, and which 
prove that no human depravity can equal revenge and cruelty 
covered with the mantle of religion. The pei'secutors began 
with John Rogers, Prebendary of St. Paul's, a man eminent 
for virtue as well as learning, who was burned February 4, 1555. 
Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, was next tried, and found guilty, 
and was sent to his diocese for execution. Saunders was burned 
at Coventry ; Philpot at Smithiield ; Ferrar, Bishop of St. 
David's, was burned in his own diocese ; Ridley, Bishop of 
London, and Latimer, formerly Bishop of Worcester, two pre- 
lates celebrated for learning and virtue, perished together in 
the flames at Oxford ; others, male and female, without distinc- 
tion of age, suffered. The persons condemned to the flames 
were not convicted of teaching or dogmatizing contrary to the 
established religion ; they were seized merely on suspicion, and, 
articles being offered them to subscribe, they were innnediately 
upon their refusal condemned. 

A bold step was even taken to introduce the Liquisition into 
England, but failing, a commission of twenty-one persons was 
appointed, armed with full authoiity to search after and punish 
all heretics, the sellers or readers of heretical books, all persons 
that did not hear mass, all preachers that did not preach the 



298 MARY. [1555-7. 

sacrament of the altar, wlien found, were punished according to 
the spiritual laws. 

Among those who suffered by fire were five bishops, twenty- 
one clergymen, eight la}^ gentlemen, eighty-fonr tradesmen, one 
hundred husbandmen, servants, and laborers, fifty-five women, 
and four children. 

These persecutions were now l:)ecome so odious to the nation, 
and the effects of the public discontent appeared in the new Par- 
liament summoned to meet at Westminster, October 21, 1555, 
and the cpieen finding the members intractable soon after dis- 
solved that body. 

The Emperor Charles V., though in the vigor of his age, re- 
signed his Gernian possessions to Philip on October 25th, and 
early the following year all his other dominions, and embarked 
on board ship, and with a fleet sailed for Spain, and then took 
journey to St. Juste, a monastery in Estramadura. Having 
taken a dislike to the world, he was determined to seek, in the 
tranquillity of a retreat, that happiness which he had vainly 
sought anndst -the tnnudts of war and the restless projects of 
ambition. 

An act of barbarity v.-as this year exercised on Archbishop 
Cranmer. He was cited l)y the Pope to stand his trial for 
heresy in Pome, and though it was known he was kept close 
prisoner at Oxford, upon not appearing he was condemned as 
contumacious, and on March 21, 1550, was burned at the stake. 
Aftei- his death Cardinal Pole was installed in the See of Can- 
terl)ury. 

Mar}' was now neglected by her husl)and, to whom she was 
fondly attached. For his sake she declared war against France, 
June 7, 1557, and the English forces took part in the battles of 
St. Quintin and Gravelines, where the French were defeated. 
The whole of France was thrown into consternation, and had 
the Spaniards marched on Paris, it nmst have fallen into their 
hands. 

The following year the French captured Calais, which the 
English had held for over two hundred years. War with 
France brought on war with Scotland. 

The loss of Calais ^vas so mortifying to the English, that they 



155S.] MARY. 299 

insisted that Piiilip should make no peace with France without 
providing for its restoration. The English murmured loudly 
against the improvidence of the queen and her council for en- 
y-aojino; in a fruitless war for the sake of a foreign alliance, and 
had thus exposed the nation to such great disgrace. 

In order to connect Scotland more closely with France, and to 
increase the influence of the latter kingdom, it was thought 
proper by the king to celebrate the marriage between the young 
Queen Mary and the dauphin, and they were accordingly mar- 
ried April 24:, 1558. 

Mary summoned Parliament, and demanded supplies for the 
purpose of raising a fleet and army to redeem their loss of 
Calais. 

A fleet of one hundred and forty ships was fitted out, carrying 
six thousand land forces, and sailed for the coast of Brittany, 
but the equipment of the fleet was so long delayed that the 
French were well prepared to receive them. 

The French and Spanish armies again met near Gravelines, a 
battle ensued, and the Spaniards gained a complete victory. 
The main army of France, imder the Duke of Guise, and that of 
Spain, under the Duke of Savoy, approached each other on the 
frontiers of Picardy, aiid as the two kings had come into their 
respective camps, and as Philip, notwithstanding his victories, 
was anxious to put an end to the war by treaty, he entered into 
negotiations with Henry for that end, and as the terms offered 
by the two monarchs were somewhat wide pf each other, the 
armies were put into winter quarters until the two kings could 
come to some definite understanding. In the midst of these 
negotiations news arrived of the death of Maiy, and Philip, no 
longer connected with England, began to relax in his demands 
for the interest' of that kingdom. 

Mary had long been in declining health, and mistaking her 
disease, had made use of improper treatment. Every reflection 
now tormented her. The consciousness of being hated by her 
subjects, the prospect of Elizabeth's succession, apprehensions 
of the danger to which the Catholic religion stood exposed, 
sorrow for the loss of Calais, and. above all, anxiety for the 
absence of her husband, who, she knew, soon intended to depart 



300 ELIZABETH. [1558. 

for Spain, and to settle there for the remainder of his life — all 
these reflections preyed upon her mind, and threw her into a 
lingering fever of which she died ISTovember 17, 155S, leaving 
no issue. Marj possessed few qualities either estimable or 
amiable, and her person was as little engaging as her behaviour 
or address. Obstinacv, bigotry, violence, cruelty, malignity, re- 
venge, tyranny, every circumstance of her . character indicated 
her bad temper and narrow understanding. 

Mary died in the forty-second year of her age, and the fifth 
year of her reign, and was succeeded by her half-sister Eliza- 
beth. 

Elizabeth — A.D. 1558-1603. 

Born at Greenwich, September 7, 1533. 
Crowned, January 15, 1559. 

Died at Richmond, March 24, 1603 ; unmarried. 
Buried at Westminster. 

Elizabeth, last monarch of the Tudor line, second living 
daughter of Henry VIII. and his second queen, Anne Boleyn, 
was born in the palace of Greenwich, September 7, 1533. 

On the death of Queen Mary, ITovember 17, 1558, Elizabeth 
ascended the throne without opposition, and a majority of the 
nation rejoiced at their happy deliverance. Both houses of 
Parliament were in session, when Heath, Archbishoj) of York, 
then chancellor, notified them of the event ; scarcely a regret 
appeared, and the two houses resounded with a joyful shout, 
" God save Queen Elizabeth ; long and happy may she reign." 

Elizabeth was at Hatfield wdien she heard of her sister's 
death, and after a few days travelled to London, arriving there 
November Qlth, where she was met by crowds of people, who 
strove with each other to show her the strongest marks of their 
regard and affection. 

On her entrance into the Tower, she could not help reflecting 
on the great diiference between her present fortune and that 
which a few 3'ears before had attended her, when she was con- 
ducted to that place as a prisoner. She fell on her knees and 
thanked heaven for her deliverance. 

With a prudence and magnanimity truly laudable she buried 



1558.] ELIZABETH, 301 

all offenses in oblivion, and received with affability even those 
who had treated her with the greatest unkindness. 

When the bishops came in a body to pay her their respects, 
she expressed to all of them sentiments of her regard, except to 
Bonner, from whom she turned aside as from a man polluted. 

One of her first acts was the appointment of William Cecil, 
as her principal Secretary of State, and Nicholas Bacon, Keeper 
of the Great Seal. She retained several Roman Catholics in 
her privy council, she continued to hear mass until Christmas 
morning, when she took the final step that placed her at the 
head of the Protestant world. 

After employing a few days in ordering her domestic affairs, 
Elizabeth notified foreign courts of her sister's death, and her 
own accession. 

She sent Lord Cobham to the Low Countries, where Philip 
II. then resided, to express to that monarch her gratitude for 
the protection he had afforded her, and her desire to continue 
the friendship so happily commenced between them. Philip, 
■who had long foreseen this event, and who still hoped, by means 
of Elizabeth, to obtain that dominion over England of which he 
had failed in marrying Mary, inmiediately dispatched orders to 
the Duke of Feria, his ambassador at London, to make proposals 
of marriage to the queen, and he offered to procure from Home 
a dispensation for that purpose. But Elizabeth soon came to 
the resolution of declining that proposal. She had also written 
to her ambassador to Rome to notify her accession to the Pope, 
but Paul made sharp comments on the message ; he told the 
ambassador, " That England was a fief of the Holy See, and it 
was great assurance in Elizabeth to have assumed the title and 
authority of queen, without his permission ; that, being illegiti- 
mate, she could not possibly inherit that kingdom, nor could he 
annul the sentence pronounced by Clement A^II. and Paul III., 
with regard to Henry's marriage ; he required her to submit her 
claim, as against that of Mary Stuart, to his arbitration. That, 
were he to proceed with rigor, he should punish this criminal 
invasion of his rights, but would keep the door of grace open to 
her." 

On receiving this answer the queen was indignant, and im- 



302 ELIZABETH. [15oS-9. 

mediately recalled the ambassador, wlioin tlie Pope frightened 
into staying at Rome nnder the threat of excommunication. 
And the queen continued with more determined resolution to 
pursue the measure she had secretly intended, and in which she 
was strengthened by Cecil's advice. Her education as well as 
interest led her to favor the Reformation, and she i-emained not 
long in suspense with regard to the pai-ty she should embrace ; 
but. though determined in her own mirul, she resolved to pro- 
ceed by gradual and secure steps, and not to imitate the example 
of her sister, in encouraging the bigots of her party to make 
immediate and violent changes in the religion established. 

Deeming it requisite to give some idea of her intentions, so 
as to give encouragement to the Prorestants so long persecuted, 
she iunnediately recalled all the exiles, and gave libert}» to the 
prisoners who were confined on account of religion. She also 
changed the order of service, and obliged them to be read in 
English instead of Latin, and forbade the Host to be any more 
elevated. 

These declarations of her intentions agreeing with preceding 
suspicions, made the bishops foresee with certainty a revolution 
in religion. They therefore refused to officiate at her corona- 
tion, and it was wiih some difiiculty that the Bishop of Carlisle 
Avas at last pre\'ailed on to perform the ceremony, January 15, 
1559. 

Parliament was summoned, and the queen delayed any chajige 
in the religion until it assembled. The election had gone en- 
tirely against the Roman Catholics, and the houses met with a 
disposition to gratify the queen in every particular. 

They began the session with an unanimous declaration that 
Queen Elizabeth Avas and ought to be the lawful and true heir 
to the crown, lawfully descended from the blood-royal, accord- 
ing to the order of succession settled by Henry VIII. 

The firs.t bill brought into Parliament with a view of trying 
their strength on the head of religion was that for the suppress- 
ing the monasteries lately erected, and for restoring the tenths 
and first fruits to the queen. This point being gained without 
much difficulty, a bill was next introduced acknowledging the 
supremacy of the crown. All the bishops who were present in 



1559.] ELIZABETH." 303 

the upper house stiongly opposed this law, but the inajority m 
both houses were against them. Bv this act the crown was 
vested with the wliolc spiritual power — might repress all here- 
sies, might establish or repeal all canons, might alter every 
point of discipline, and might ordain or abolish any religious rite 
or ceremony. In order to exercise this authority, the queen, by 
a clause of this act, was empowered to name commissioners, 
either lay or clerical, as she thought proper ; and it was enacted 
that whoever refused to take the oath of the queen's supremacy 
was incapacitated from holding any office ; whoever denied the 
supremacy were liable to fines for first and second offence, and 
for the third was, guilty of treason. A law was passed confirm- 
ing all the statutes passed in King Edward's time with regard 
to religion, the election of bishops was given to the crown 
without any election of the chapters ; the queen was empowered, 
on the vacancy of any see, to seize all the temporalities, and to 
bestow on the bishop-elect an equivalent. The most important 
bill was now inti-oduced for abolishing the mass and re-establish- 
ing the liturgy of King Edward. 

And thus, in one session, without any violence or tuumlt, was 
the whole system of religion altered by the will of a }oung 
woman. 

Parliament was prorogued May 8, 1559, and the laws enacted 
with regard to religion were put into execution, and met with 
little opposition from any quarter. The liturgy was introduced 
in the English language, and the oath of supremacy was ten- 
dered to the clergy. The number of bishops had been reduced 
to fourteen by a sickly season which had just passed, and all 
these, except the Bishop of Llandaff, having refused conqilianee, 
had been removed from their sees ; but of the infeiioi- clergy 
throughout all England, where there are nearly ten thous;ind 
parishes, only one hundred and sixty -five of all ranks sacrificed 
their livings for their religious principles. 

Negotiations for peace were still conducted between the min- 
isters of France, Spain, and England, and Philip enq)loyed his 
utmost eiforts to procure the restitution of Cakais, both as bound 
in honor to indemnify England and for his own interest to re- 
move France from his frontiers of the Low Countries. So long 



304 ELIZABETH. [1559-GO. 

as lie entertained hopes of marrying Elizabeth he delayed con- 
cluding a peace with Henry, and even after his own terms with 
Fi'ance were agreed to, he seemed willing to continue the war 
until Elizabeth should obtain satisfaction, provided she would 
stipulate to adhere to the Spanish alliance and continue hostili- 
ties against Henry during the course of six years. But Eliza- 
beth, after consulting her ministers, w^isely rejected the pro- 
posal, and a peace wdth France ensued, in which Scotland was 
included (April 12, 1559). 

After the marriage of Mary Queen of Scots and the Dauphin 
of France, the Duke of Guise and his brothers, thinking it 
would add greatly to their position if their niece should bring 
an accession of England, as she had done of Scotland, to the 
crown of France, engaged the king not to neglect the claim, 
and, by their persuasion, he ordered his son and daughter-in- 
law to assume openly the arms as well as the title of king and 
queen of England, and to quarter these arms on all their equip- 
ages, furniture, and liveries. 

When the English ambassador complained of this injury, he 
could only obtain an evasive answer — that as the Queen of Scots 
w^as descended from the blood-royal of England, she was en- 
titled, by the example of many princes, to assume the arms of 
that kingdom. Elizabeth plainly saw that this pretension had 
not been advanced during the reign of her sister Mary, and 
that the King of France intended,' on the first opportunity, to 
dispute her legitimacy and her title to the crown. Alarmed at 
the danger, she thenceforth conceived a violent jealousy against 
the Queen of Scots. 

The sudden death of Henry II., and the accession of the 
Dauf)hin as Francis II., who still continued to assume, without 
reserve, the title and arms of England, caused Elizabeth to 
consider him and his queen her mortal enemies, and the state 
of affairs in Scotland afforded her a favorable opportunity both 
of revenging the injury and providing for her own safety. 

She thereon fitted out a fleet of thirteen ships and sent it to 
the Firth of Forth, January, 1560, and assembled at Berwick 
an army of eight thousand men to assist the Scottish Reform- 
ers, concluded a treaty of mutual defence with them, which 



1560-2.] ELIZABETH. 305 

was to last during the marriage of Queen Mary with Francis, 
and one year after, and she promised never to desist until the 
French had entirely evacuated Scotland ; she then oi-dered her 
army and fleet to begin operations. The appearance of the 
fleet in the Forth disconcerted the Frencli army, who were at 
that time ravaging the county of Fife, and obliged them to 
retii'e to Leith, where they prepared themselves for defence, 
but they were afterward beaten and had to capitulate. 

Two plenipotentiaries were appointed, each by Francis and 
Elizabeth, and on July 5, 15G0, it was stipulated that the 
French should immediately evacuate Scotland, and the king 
and queen of France and Scotland should thenceforth abstain 
from bearing the arms of England, or assuming the title of 
that kingdom, and that further satisfaction for the injury al- 
ready done should be granted Elizabeth, and that commission- 
ers should meet to settle that point. The Scottish Ileformers 
being now entirely masters of the kingdom, cemented their 
union with England. Francis II. being now dead. Queen 
Mary applied to Elizabeth for permission to travel through 
England to Edinburgh, and was denied, but Mary endiarked at 
Calais, and succeeded in eluding a fleet fitted out by Elizabeth to 
intercept her, owing to a thick fog, and on the lOtli of August, 
1501, landed safely in Leith. 

In 1502, the Prince of Conde, on the part of the French 
Huguenots, applied to Elizabeth for assistance, and offered to 
put Havre into the hands of the English, which offer was ac- 
cepted by her, and an English army took possession of the 
town, and rendered good service to the Huguenots. But the 
captivity of Conde and Montmorency, who were taken prison- 
ers in battle, and the assassination of the Duke of Guise, made 
both parties anxious for peace, which the Huguenots accordingly 
concluded with Queen Catherine, March 19th, without con- 
sulting Elizabeth, who refused ' to surrender Havre ; she sent 
orders to the Earl of Warwick, commander of the town, to pre- 
pare himself for an attack of the nnited power of France. 
The plague, however, having broken ont among the garrison, 
and made great ravages, he was obliged to capitulate and content 
himself with being allowed to embark with his troops. To in- 
20 



306 ELIZABETH. [1503-4. 

crease the misfortune the infected army brought the pLague 
with them to Enghmd. 

In 1563 Parliament entreated the queen to marry, the ques- 
tion of the succession being one of great interest to all classes of 
her subjects, who were not yet free from the terror caused by 
the war of the Hoses. Candidates for her hand continued to 
spring up, both at home and abroad. Among her suitors were 
the Duke of Anjou, the Archduke Charles of Austi'ia, Henry 
Fitzalan, eighteenth and last Earl of Arundel, and Robert 
Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who was for many years her chief 
favorite. Elizal)etli was also entreated to acknowledge Marj^ 
Stuart as presumptive heiress, but she would not do so, and the 
question was left open. 

In 1563 Elizabeth and Mary became reconciled, and a friend- 
ship appears to have sprung up l)etween them ; they wrote friend- 
ly letters to each other, and had adopted, in all appearance, the 
sentiments as well as style of sisters. Elizabeth even punished 
one Hales, who had published a book against Mary's title. 
Elizabeth now proposed to the Queen of Scots that if she would 
marry an English gentleman she would examine into her title, 
and declare her successor to the crown. She proposed Lord 
Eobert Dadley, afterward Earl of Leicester, wdioni Mary re- 
jected, on the ground of his not possessing sufficient dig- 
nity. 

The proposal to marry Mary was in no way agreeable to 
Dudley, as, from Elizabeth's declared attachment to himself, he 
had aspired to her hand, and in order to nuike way for that he 
was accused of having murdered his wife, Amy liobsart, in a 
barbarous manner. 

Queen Mary had several other proposals of marriage — from 
the Duke of Austria, Prince of Spain, King of Sweden, Duke 
of Orleans, Prince de Conde, and the young King of France ap- 
plied to Rome for a dispensation to l)e allowed to marry her 
(his brother's widow). But she had alre:idy decided in her own 
mind to marry her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnlc)', son of 
the Earl of Lennox. Elizabeth was alarmed at this union, as 
each was thought by some to have a better claim to the throne 
than herself. She ordered Darnley and his father inunediately, 



1565-7.] ELIZABETH. 307 

upon their allegiance, to retui-n to England, and on their refus- 
ing imprisoned the Countess of Lennox in the Tower. 

Mary was married on July 25, 1565, and Darnley Avas created 
Duke of Albany. She was taken by his youth and beauty, l>ut 
quite overlooked the qualities of his mind, lie proved to be a 
man of immoral character, and after the marriage continued his 
lewd and debauched practices ; he showed marked disrespect to 
her person, not tolerating the sight of any one the queen favored. 
The first to suffer was the Italian Rizzio, whom he caused to 
be assassinated in the queen's closet and in her presence. Mary's 
whole conduct now appeared to change, and she talked openly 
of obliging Elizabeth to recognize her as heir presumptive to 
the throne of England. 

She also ordered the re establishment of the mass in the High 
Church, Edinburgh. Soon after Darnley and his friends formed 
a party and took possession of the queen, keeping her a close 
prisoner for a time. 

On June 19, 1566, she was delivered of a son, afterward 
James YL of Scotland — James I. of England. This event 
caused the English Parliament again to press Elizaljeth for her 
marriage and settlement of the succession, at which she ex- 
pressed her displeasure. 

In December Darnley was taken with a dangerous illness at 
the house of his father in Glasgow. Marj^, forgetting all former 
ill-usage, visited him there, and as soon as he was well enough 
had him removed to Edinl)urgh, where they arrived Januar}' 30, 
1567. They lodged at the house former!}' belonging to the Su- 
perior of the church of Kirk-o-field, being better in a sanitary 
way than Holyrood House. The queen remained with him until 
February 9tli, and at eleven o'clock at night left to attend a ball 
given at the palace on account of the marriage of one of her 
attendants. Before morning the inhabitants of Edinburgh 
were alarmed by a dreadful explosion, which proved to be in 
the house wdiere Darnley lodged, and his body was afterward 
found in a garden adjoining. 

The Earl of Bothwell was suspected of being a principal actor 
in this tragedy, and at the queen's instance, but she was after- 
ward acquitted of all connection with it. 



OQ3 ELIZABETH. [1567. 

Botliwell was a man of considerable family and power in 
Scotland, but of profligate habits, and had only recently acquired 
the favor and coniidence of Mary. 

Very soon Both well made pretensions for the queen's hand, 
and farmed a conspiracy with leading noblemen for that pur- 
pose, which ho put into effect in a forcible manner. The queen, 
liaving occasion to make a journey from Edinburgh to Stirling 
with a slender suite, was surrounded by a large body of horse, 
with Botliwell at its head. Xo resistance being offered, Mary was 
carried off to his fortified castle of Dunbar, with an avowed design 
of forcing her to yield to his purpose (some say the affair was all 
settled between them previously). Fearing the consequences, he 
brought her back to Edinburgh, and on May 15th they were 
married, he having a few days previously procured an irregular 
divorce from his wife. Lady Jane Gordon, sister of the Earl of 
Huntley, to enable him to marry. This marriage was also a 
most unfortunate one, as he very soon showed his true charac- 
ter, and treated her in a brutal manner. She often threatened 
to end her life to free her from his tyranny. 

Both Elizabeth and the French king protested against such a 
match, and foretold the consequences sure to follow. 

An association of noblemen was soon formed against Both- 
well, who had been created Duke of Orkney, and he, fearing 
danger, escaped to his castle of Dunbar, and finally to the Ork- 
ney Islands and Denmark. 

(^ueen Mary was sent prisoner to Loch Leven Castle, June 10, 
15()7, and her infant son James was placed upon the throne, 
with the Earl of Murray as Regent. On July 29, 150T, James 
was crowned at Stirling. Whatever Elizabeth's secret inten- 
tions were, she showed great displeasui-e at the proceedings of 
the Associated Lords, and gave her ambassador orders not to 
attend or recognize the coronation. 

For some time many of Mary's friends were awaiting a chance 
for her escape. One or two attempts had failed. On May 2, 
1508, by the assistance of a young no])leman, George Douglas, 
whom Mary was in love with, had a boat in waiting, and while 
the family were at supper conveyed her, with an attendant, to 
the side of the lake, where friends were ready to receive her; 



1567-9.] ElilZABETH. 309 

she then rode to Hamilton, and from thence to Enghxnd, where 
she arrived May 10th. 

On Mary's ai-rival at Carlisle, she immediately despatched a 
messenger to Elizaheth, notifying her arrival, and asking leave 
to visit her, and craving protection in consequence of her for- 
mer professions of friendship. 

Elizabeth had previously received the information of her 
arrival from Lord Scrope, and summoned a Pi-ivy Council to 
decide how she was to act, and they advised, as Mary had 
arrived in England without any safe-conduct or assurance from 
Elizabeth, she therefore became her prisoner, and Lord Scrope 
was notilied accordingly to keep strict watch over all her 
motions, that she may not regain her liberty. Cecil concluded 
that the most fortunate event of Elizabetli''s reign was that she 
had her most formidable enemy in custody, and that she should 
be brought to trial for her husband's murder. 

Three commissioners were appointed each by Elizabeth and 
Mary's friends to meet at York, but Elizabeth was predetermined 
on Mary's condemnation, or of protracting the proceedings in 
such a manner that her confinement should be next to perpetual. 

Serions troubles now existed all over England, and aifairs 
abroad assumed a critical character. The asylum England 
afforded to those who fled fj-om persecution in Flanders of- 
fended Spain. The English flag was' insulted in the Gulf of 
Mexico, and the English ambassador was badly treated at 
Madrid. The cpieen retaliated by seizing treasure found on 
Spanish vessels that had taken refuge in England, and when 
Alva laid an embargo on Englishmen and their property, she 
arrested all Spaniards in England, not eyen excepting the am- 
bassador. Elizabeth corresponded directly with Philip, but 
that monarch took a high tone, and threatened M^ar. 

The Duke of Norfolk became attached to Queen Mary. 
Elizabeth bade him be on his guard. He was afterward ar- 
I'ested and imprisoned. 

The great northern rebellion broke ont in 1569, headed by 
the Catholic earls of Westmoreland and Xorthumberland, l)ut 
was rapidly crushed by the Earl of Sussex, and eight hundred 
of the rebels executed. 



310 ELIZABETH. [1570-81. 

In 1570 Elizabetli was excommunicated by Pope Pius Y., 
and a copj of the bull was fastened on the gate of the Episco- 
pal Palace of London by a Catholic named Felton, who was put 
to the rack and executed. 

Parliament met on April 2, 1571, after an interval of five 
years. After the Speaker of the Connnons was elected, the 
Lord Chancellor told the House, bv the queen's command, that 
she enjoined them not to meddle with any matters of state — 
which was supposed to mean the tjuestions of the (pieeirs mar- 
riage and succession. 

In this parliament members were restrained from liberty of 
speech, and the House M'as silenced, and prevented legislating 
on patents and monopolies — the sole prerogative of the crown. 

The Duke of JSTorfolk was tried for high treason January 12, 
1572, for aiding Mai-y in a conspiracy against the queen, and 
supplying money to her agents in Scotland. He was found 
guilty, and executed May Stli following. 

Pliilip, to retaliate for the assistance given by Elizabeth to 
his rebels in the Low Countries, had sent, under the name of 
the Pope, a body of seven hundred Spaniards and Italians to 
Ireland, where the inhabitants, always discontented with the 
English government, were ready to join any invader. The 
Spanish general built a fort in Kerry, and being there besieged 
by the Earl of Orniond, made a Aveak and cowardly defence. 
After some assaults he surrendered, and Lord Gray, who com- 
manded but a small force, finding himself encumbered with so 
many prisoners, put all the Spaniards and Italians to the sword 
without mercy, and hanged about iifteen hundred of the Irish 
— a cruelty which gave great displeasure to the queen. 

Sir Francis Drake, with the consent of Elizabeth, set sail 
from Plymouth in December, 1577, with four ships and a pin- 
nace, on board of which were one hundred and sixty-four able 
seamen ; he passed into the South Sea l:>y the Straits of Magel- 
lan, and attacking the Spaniards, took many rich prizes, return- 
ing home by way of the Cape of Good Hope. He was the first 
Englishman who sailed round the world. 

Another session of Parliament took place January 10, 15S1. 
After passing the supplies, bills were enacted for the security 



1583.] ELIZABETH. 311 

of the government, chiefly against the attempts of tlie Eonian 
Catholics, owing to some Lite discoveries of the treasonable 
practices of the priests. 

After another failure to bring about a marriage between the 
Archduke Charles and Elizabeth, it was proposed she should 
marry the Duke of Alen9on, just created Duke of Anjou. He 
came secretly to Greenwich, and, after some conference with 
her, departed, but the purport was not known ; and althongh 
his appearance was not prepossessing, he lost no ground by his 
personal interview. On his return the French king sent over a 
splendid embassy to treat with English commissioners respect- 
ino; the marriai^-e contract, and it was agreed the marriage 
should take place in six weeks after the ratification of the 
articles. 

It was stipulated that the duke and his retinue should be 
allowed the exercise of their religion ; that after the marriage 
he should bear the title of king, but the administration remain 
solely in the queen ; that their children, male or female, should 
succeed to the crown of England ; that if there shonld be two 
males, the elder, in case of llemy's deatli without issne, should 
be King of France, the yonnger of England ; that if there 
should be but one male, and he succeed to the crown of France, 
he should be obliged to reside in England eight months in 
every two years ; that the laws and customs of England should 
be observed inviolate, and that no foreigner should be pro- 
moted by the duke to any office in England. But as a proof 
of the queen's uncertainty, she added the clause, that she was 
not bound to complete the marriage until further articles (which 
were not specified) should be agreed on between the parties, 
and till the King of France be notified of this agreement. 
Soon after, the queen sent over Walsingham as and)assador to 
France, in order to form closer connections with Henry, and 
enter into a league offensive and defensive against the inci'eas- 
ing power and dangerous usurpations of Spain. 

During the course of these negotiations Elizabeth felt another 
change of sentiment between her reason and her ruling passions, 
and prudence filled her breast with doubt and hesitation. Few 
of the courtiers whom she trusted and favored made any scruple 



gl2 ELIZABETH. [loS4. 

of opposing the marriage by tlieir most zealous remonstrances, 
and after describing the many evils snre to follow, prudence 
and ambition at last prevailed over her temporary inclination, 
and having sent for the Duke of Anjou, she had a long con- 
ference with him in private, where she was supposed to have 
made him an apology for breaking off the engagement. 

• lie expressed great dissatisfaction on leaving her, threw away 
a ring she had given him, uttered many curses on the deceit of 
women, and avowed his disgust of the English. Soon after, he 
returned to the Ketherlands, whence he was in a short time ex- 
pelled ; he retired into France, and died there. 

Cecil was now created Lord Burleigh, and made Lord High 
Treasurer, and Sir Thomas Smith, principal Secretary of State. 

A new parliament met Xovember 23, ISSi. An act was 
passed l)y which the queen was empowered to name connnis- 
sioners for the trial of any pretender to the crown who should 
attempt or imagine any invasion, insurrection, or assassination 
against her ; upon condenmation pronounced by these connnis- 
sioners, the guilty person was excluded from all claim to the 
succession, and was further punishable as her majesty should 
direct. And for the greater security, a council of regency, in 
case of the queen's violent death, was app(>inted to govern the 
kingdom, to settle the succession, and to take vengeance for 
that act of treason. 

This was specially directed at Mary Queen of Scots. A 
severe law was also passed against Jesuits and Popish priests ; 
they were ordered to depart the kingdom within forty days, 
under penalty of being tried for treason, and the exercise of the 
Itoman C^atholic religion was entirely suppressed. 

The Emperor Maximilian II. offered the hand of his son 
Iludolph to Elizabeth, who was old enough to be his mother ; 
but it was declined. Henry of Navarre also placed himself at 
her disposal, but was also rejected. 

The Dutch offered their government to Elizabeth, whom they 
respected as a descendant from Philippa of Ilainault. Fearing 
hostility from Philip, and making it a precedent against herself 
in Ireland or M'ith her discontented subjects at home, she de- 
clined, but rendered them assistance in other ways. 



1585-6.] ELIZABETH. 3;[3 

Ireland gave great trouble at this time, and the contest waged 
there by Lord Mountjoy was called by the Irish the " Hag's 
AVar," in derision of the queen. 

Conspiracies began to multiply around Elizabeth, naturally 
having Mary Stuart as their central figure, in one of which the 
Spanish minister, Mendoza, Avas implicated, and forced to leave 
the country ; many persons were executed, and others im- 
prisoned. 

Elizabeth, finding an open breach with Philip was unavoid- 
able, despatched a fleet of twenty ships and twenty -five hundred 
volunteers besides seamen, under Sir Francis Drake, to attack 
the Spanish possessions in the AYest Indies, where they met 
with great success. They then sailed for the coast of Florida, 
and burned St. Anthony and St. Helens. Sailing along the 
coast of Virginia, they found the small remains of a colony 
planted there by Sir Walter Raleigh, and which had gone en- 
tirely to decay. This was the first attempt of the English to 
form such settlements. Drake's return to England with so nnich 
riches encouraged volunteers, and inflamed the country to em- 
bark in future enterprises. 

Having provoked so powerful an enemy as Philip, the queen 
Avas not foi'getful to secure a friend, and cultivated the alliance 
and friendship of James. She sent an ambassador to Scotland, 
and a league was formed for the nnitual defence of the two 
^^cingdoms and of their religion. By this alliance James secured 
himself against all attempts from abroad, and assisted in pacifi- 
cation at home. 

The discovery of a conspiracy, in which Anthony Babbiugton 
Avas a leading actor, which aimed at the simultaneous assassina- 
tion of Elizabeth and the liberation of Queen Mary, in 15SG, 
proved fatal to the latter, she having consented to the con- 
spiracy, and, it being discovered, the participants were all cap- 
tured, tried, found guilty, and e.xecuted. 

Elizabeth was now determined to bring the Queen of Scots 
to trial, not for treason, but under the act passed in the last 
parliament in view of this very event. She was conducted to 
Fotheringay Castle, in Noilhamptonshire, where the trial was 
to take place. A court of foi'ty-seven noblemen and privy 



314 ELIZABETH. [1586-7. 

councillors was appointed by Elizabeth to examine and pass 
sentence on Mary, whom slie denominated tlie late Queen of 
Scots. 

Mary at first refused to, answer, pleading lier royal dignity, 
but the connnissioners would not admit her objection. 

At last she admitted negotiating with foreign powers to ob- 
tain her libei-ty, but disclaimed any intention on the life of 
Elizabeth. The crown lawyei's produced copies of intercepted 
letters between her and her agents, in which her approbation 
was clearly expressed ; also the confessions of others. In reply 
Mary denied the whole, and said they were forged. 

On October 25, 15SG, the commissioners reassembled and 
pronounced her guilty, and sentence of death was passed upon 
her. Parliament met four days after, and both houses joined 
in petition to the queen that sentence should be executed, insist- 
ing that there was no other possiljle means of providing for the 
queen's safety, and tliat the neglect of it would procure the 
heavy displeasure and punishment of the Almighty. 

As soon as James heard of the trial and coudemnation of his 
mother, he sent Sir William Keith, a gentleman of his bed- 
chamber, to Loudon, and wrote a letter to the queen in which 
he remonstrated, in very severe terms, against the indignity 
of the procedure. Soon after he sent two other nobl(^nien to 
enforce his remonstrances, and to use every expedient of argu- 
ment and menaces ; but Elizabeth still retained her resolution* 
of executhig the sentence. 

During winter all kinds of rumors were spread respecting 
invasions from France, Spain, and Scotland, and of attempts 
against the queen's life ; Elizabeth continued undecided. At 
length, on February 1, 15ST, she signed the death-warrant, and 
intrusted it to her secretary. The following day she desired 
him to delay forwarding it, when the secretary told her it had 
passed the great seal, and had been sent to its destination ; she 
appeared somewhat mov^ed, and blamed him for his precipita- 
tion. 

On February 8, 15ST, Mary, Queen of Scots, perished on the 
scaffold, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and the nineteenth of 
her captivity in England. 



1587,] ELIZABETH. 315 

When Elizabeth was informed of Mary's execntion, she pro- 
fessed the utmost surprise and indignation, and accused her 
mmisters of being guilty of an unpardonable crime, in putting 
to death her dear sister and kinswoman, contrary to her fixed 
purpose. Although she had herself ordered the death-warrant 
to be brought to her, which she signed readily and ordered to 
be sealed with the great seal of England. 

It is by some asserted that the death-warrant was a forgery, 
supposed to have been perpetrated by the order or under the 
direction of Walsingham. 

The Scottish people were enraged, and would have gladly 
assailed their old enemy, but nothing was done, owing to the 
plausible excuses and denials made by Elizabeth. 

Drake, in the meantime, rav'aged the coast of Spain, preyed 
on her commerce, and made a successful attack on the. shipping 
in the harbor of Cadiz. 

Pope Sixtus V. anathematized Elizabeth and proclaimed a 
crusade against her. Philip II. laid claim to the English throne, 
as legitimate heir to the house of Lancaster, in virtue of his 
descent from two daughters of John of Gaunt, who had been 
Queens of Portugal and Castile ; he made open preparations to 
enforce his claim, and the Pope promised him- conditional aid. 

The English were not backward in preparing to meet Philip's 
attack ; all parties. Catholics and Puritans, as well all the rest 
of the people, showed a patriotic spirit. A fleet of eighty sail 
was got ready, connnanded by Lord Howard, Drake, Frobisher, 
and Hawkins, and two armies were raised, consisting of sixty 
thousand men. 

Philip now determined that the fate of England nnist be 
decided by land and sea, and his success against that country 
would cause the immediate subjection of the Dutch. He had 
been for some time past making secret arrangements, but as 
soon as the resolution was fully taken, every part of his vast 
empire resounded with preparations. 

In all the ports of Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Xaples, arti- 
sans were employed in the building and fitting out of ships for 
his navy, of immense size and power ; naval stores were bought 
at great expense, provisions collected, armies levied, and (piar- 



31(3 ELIZABETH. [1588. 

tered in tlie niaritiiiie towns of Spain, and plans were laid for 
iittin*^ out siicli a fleet as never before had its equal. An army 
of thirty-four thousand men lay in the xS^etherlands ready to be 
embarked for England at the proper moment. The Spaniards, 
ostentatious of their power, and elated with vain hopes, had 
aheady named their fleet the Invincible Armada. The Pope 
blessed it and sent it a banner. It consisted of one hundred and 
fifty ships of war, besides transports, M'ith twenty-two thousand 
men, under connnand of the Duke of Medina Siclonia, a large 
mmiber of volunteers from the first families of Spain and Italy, 
one hundred and eight}' priests — for it Avas hoped to convert as 
well as conquer — they carried instruments from the Inquisition. 
It made a gallant show, and sailed early in the month of May, 
1588, from Cadiz to invade and conquer England ; it rendez- 
voused at Lisbon, from whence it sailed on June 1st, but owing 
to a stoj-m it was scattered, and the expedition abandoned for a 
tune. Such was the report, but not the case, as a week after- 
ward it appeared in, and proudly sailed up the chamiel, making 
for the coast of Holland, and to take on board the veteran 
troops collected there, and a body of English deserters. 

As the Arnuida sailed on in a broad line past Plymouth, 
moving toward its point of junction Vxitli Parma, at Dunkirk, 
the vessels which had gathered under Lord Howard slipped out 
of the Pay, and hung with the wind upon their rear. In num- 
ber the two forces were strangely unequal ; the English fleet 
counted only eighty vessels, against the one Inmdred and fifty, 
besides transports, which composed the Armada. In size of 
ships the dispropoilion was even greater. Eifty of the English 
vessels, including the squadron of Lord Howard, and the craft 
of the volunteers were little larger than yachts of the present 
day. Even of the thirty queen's ships which formed its main 
body there were only four which ecpialled in tonnage the smallest 
of the Spanish galleons. Sixty-five of these galleons formed the 
most formidable half of the Spanish fleet, and four galliasses, 
or gigantic galleys, armed with fifty guns apiece, sixty armed 
merchantmen, and twenty-one pinnaces made up the rest. 
Small, however, as the English ships were, they were in per- 
fect trim ; they sailed two feet for the Spanish one ; they were 



1588.] ELIZABETH. 317 

manned by nine tliousand hardy seamen, and their admiral was 
backed by a crowd of captains who liad won fame on the Span- 
ish seas ; with him were Hawkins, Frobisher,- and Drake, 
who commanded tlie vohinteers. Tlie English had the advan- 
tage of the wind, and their lightly handled vessels fired fonr 
shots to the Spaniards' one, and hnng boldly on the rear of the 
great fleet as it moved along the channel. Galleon after gal- 
leon was snnk, boarded, or driven on shore ; and yet Medina 
Sidonia failed in bringing his pnrsners to a close engagement, 
Now halting, now moving slowly on, the rnnning fight between 
the two fleets lasted thronghont the week, till the Armada 
dropped anchor in Calais Roads. The time had now come for 
sharper work, if the jnnction of the Armada with Parma was 
to be prevented, for demoralized as the Spaniards had been 
by the merciless chase, their loss on ships had not been great, 
while the English snpplies of food and ammunition was fast 
running out. Howard resolved to force an engagement ; and, 
lighting eight fire-ships at midnight, sent them down with the 
tide upon the Spanish line. 

The galleons at once cut their cables, and stood out in panic 
to sea, drifting with the wind in a long line, off Gravelines. 
Drake, resolved, at all costs, to prevent their return. At day- 
light the English ships closed fairly in, and almost their last car- 
tridge was spent ere the sun went down. Three great galleons 
had sunk, three had drifted helplessly on to the Flemish 
coast ; but the bulk of the Spanish vessels remained, and even 
to Drake the fleet seemed " wonderfully great and strong." 

Within the Armada itself, however, all hope was gone. 
Huddled together with the wind and the deadly English fire, 
their sails torn, their masts shot away, the crowded galleons 
had become, mere slaughter-houses. 

Four thousand men had fallen, and bravely as the seamen 
fought, they were cowed by the teirible butchery. 

Medina himself was in despair. " AVe are lost,"* he cried 
to his bravest captain, Oquinda ; " what are we to do ? " " Let 
others talk of being lost," replied the captain ; " your Excel- 
lency has only to order up fresh cartridges." But Oquinda 
stood alone ; a council of war resolved to retreat to Spain, by 



318 ELIZABETH. [1588-9. 

tlie only course open, that by way of Orkney Islands. "I^ever 
anything -pleased me better," wrote Drake, " than seeing the 
enemy fly with a southerly Mdnd to the northward." "Have a 
good eye to the Prince of Parma, for, with the grace of God, if 
we like, I doubt not ere it be long, so to handle the matter with 
the Duke of Medina as he shall wish himself at St. Mary's 
Port, among his orange trees." But the work of destruction 
was reserved for a mightier foe than Di'ake; supplies fell short, 
and the English vessels were forced to give up the chase. 

But the Spanish ships which remained had no sooner reached 
the Orkneys than the storms of the northern seas broke on 
them with a fury before which all concert and union disappeared. 

Fifty ships reached Corunna bearing ten thousand men 
stricken with pestilence and death, of the rest some were sunk, 
some dashed to pieces against the cliffs of the Hebrides, and 
on the Irish coast. 

The wreckers of the Orkneys and the Faroes, and tlie clans- 
men of the Scottish Isles, the kerns of Donegal and (xalway, 
all had their part in the work of murder and robbery. Eight 
thousand Spaniards perished between the Giant's Causeway 
and the Blaskets. On a strand near SHgo an English captain 
numbered eleven hundred bodies which had been cast up by 
the sea. 

The flower of the Spanish nobility, who had been sent on 
the new crusade under Alonzo de Leyva, after twice suffering 
shipwreck, put a third time to sea to founder on a reef near 
Dunblane. 

Such was the miserable and dishonorable conclusion of an 
enterprise which had been preparing for three years ; which 
had exhausted the revenue and force of Spain, and had long 
filled Europe with anxiety and expectation. 

The disastrous failure of this expedition did not terminate 
hostilities between England and Spain, but the country was de- 
livered from the fear of another invasion. 

The Earl of Leicester died the same year, and the Earl of 
Essex now became Elizabeth's favorite minister. 

The following year an expedition was sent to effect the liber- 
ation of Portugal, but the undertaking signally failed. 



1590-93.] ELIZABETH. ^ig 

Aid in men and money was sent to assist Henry lY. of 
France, then figlitiiig with Spain and the league, with the un- 
derstanding that, as soon as the enemy was expelled from 
France, the charges should be refunded. During these military 
operations in France, Elizabeth iitted out a fleet of seven ships, 
nnder command of Lord Howard, to intercept the West Indian 
treasure-ships of Spain; but Philip, being informed of her pur- 
pose, fitted out a great force of fifty-five sail and dispatched 
them to convoy his fleet. They fell in with the English ships 
and succeeded in capturing one vessel, the first Englisli ship of 
war that had yet fallen into the hands of the Spaniards. This 
war was attended with considerable expense to England, and a 
new parliament met on February 19, 1593, to grant supplies. 
"When the speaker. Sir Edward Coke, made the three usual re- 
quests of the queen, of freedom from arrest, of access to her 
person, and of liberty of speech, she replied to him by the mouth 
of Pickering, Lord Privy Seal, " The liberty of speech was 
granted, but they must know what liberty they were entitled to ; 
not a liberty for every one to speak what he listeth, or what 
Cometh in his brain to utter ; their privilege extended no farther 
than a liberty of aye or no. She told the speaker if he per- 
ceived any idle heads so negligent of their own safety as to at- 
tempt reforming the church, or making changes in the common- 
wealth, that he should refuse the bills presented for that pur- 
pose until they were examined by those who were fitted to con- 
sider and judge them. She would not endanger the freedom of 
their persons, but they nnist beware, lest under color of this 
privilege, they imagined that any neglect of their duty could be 
covered or protected ; that she would not refuse them access to 
her person provided it were upon urgent and weighty business, 
and at times convenient to her." 

Notwithstanding this contemptuous speech, a member, Peter 
Wentworth, ventured to transgress the imperial orders of Eliza- 
beth by presenting a petition with regard to the succession. He 
with his seconder and two others were immediately imprisoned, 
and the House had to acquiesce in this arbitrary act and sub- 
mit to her will. 

The decision of Henry IV. of France to abandon the Protes- 



320 ELIZABETH. [159r,-7. 

tant faith annoyed Elizabeth, who in vain souglit to influence 
liis mind to remain firm, but being sensible that tlie league and 
the King of Spain were still their common enemies, she received 
his apologies, continued her succors of men and money, and 
formed a new treaty, in which they stipulated never to make 
peace M'ith the enemy unless by mutual agreement. In 1595 
Elizal)eth, being threatened by Philip with a new invasion of 
England and with an insurrection in Irehmd, recalled most of 
her forces. 

A powerful fleet was fltted out at Plymouth, consisting of one 
hundred and seventy vessels of all sizes, fully manned ; they 
carried besides eight thousand soldiers. The ships were com- 
manded by Lord Effingham, and set sail on June 1, 1596, and, 
meeting with a fair wind, departed under sealed orders to a 
general rendezvous. AVlien they arrived near Cadiz they were 
fortunate in taking an Irish ship, by which they learned that 
that port was full of merchant ships of great value. A council 
of war was held, and it was decided to attack the place, which 
was soon carried, sword in hand. The English made rich plun- 
der in the city, but missed nnich richer by the resolution of 
the Duke of Medina, the Spanish Admiral, of firing the ships 
to prevent them falling into the hands of the enemy. It was 
computed the loss to the Spaniards amounted to twenty million 
ducats. Henry made peace with Philip, 1598, Elizabeth refus- 
ing to l)e a party to it, knowing she could finish the ^\'ar at any 
time on equitable terms. 

A great rivalry existed between the Earl of Essex, the queen's 
favorite, and Lord Burleigh, her faithful minister. On one 
occasion, being concerned in a dispute in the queen's presence 
about the cIkmco of a governor for Ireland, in wdiich Elizabeth 
took part, the former became so heated in the argument that he 
entirely forgot the rules of civility and turned his back upon 
her in a contemptuous manner. Her temper, naturally quick 
and violent, rose at this insult, and she instantly gave him a box 
on the ear, adding a passionate expression suitable to the im- 
pertinence. Instead of making submission due to her sex and 
station, he clapped his hand on his sword and swore he would 
not bear such usage, were it from Henry VIII. himself. He 



1598] ELIZABETH. 321 

immediately withdrew from court, but Elizabeth soon reinstated 
him in her favor, and her kindness to him appeared rather to 
have acquired new foi'ce from this short interval of anger and 
resentment. 

The death of Lord Burleigh, who had always opposed Essex, 
occurred about the same time (1598), and seemed to insure him 
constant possession of the queen's confidence ; and nothing, in- 
deed, but his own indiscretion could thenceforth have shaken 
his well-established position. 

Soon after the death of Burleigh, the queen, who regretted 
extremely the loss of so wise and faithful a minister, was in- 
formed of the death of her principal enemy, Philip 11. , who, 
after languishing under many infirmities, expired at an advanced 
age at Madrid, September 13, 1598. 

About this time Elizabeth's attention was called to the affairs 
of Ii'eland. Though the dominion of the English over that 
country had been established above four centuries, their author- 
ity hitherto had been little more than nominal. A body of one 
thousand men was supported there, which, on extraordinary 
emergencies, was augmented to two thousand. Hugh O'l^eale, 
nephew to the great O'Neale, had been raised by the queen 
to the dignity of Earl of Tyrone, but, having murdered his 
cousin, son of that rebel, and having been acknowledged head 
of his clan, he preferred the pride of barbarous license and 
dominion to the pleasui-e of opulence and tranquillity, and he 
fomented all kinds of disorders, by which he hoped to weaken 
or overturn the Eno-lish government. He entered into a corre- 
spondence with Spain, and procured thence a supplj^ of arms 
and ammunition, and, having united all the Irish chieftains in 
a dependence upon himself, he began to be regarded as a for- 
midable enemy. 

Tyrone defied and eluded for some years the arms of Sir 
John Is^orris, the English commander, and defeated his succes- 
sor. Sir Henry Bagnal, in a pitched battle at Blackwater, where 
one thousand five hundred men, together with the general him- 
self, were left dead on the field. 

The English coimcil, feeling that the rebellion in Ireland was 
now come to a dangerous head, resolved to push the war with 
21 



322 ELIZABETH. [1599. 

more vigorous measures, and Essex prevailed upon tlie queen to 
appoint liim lord deputy of Ireland, and, to insure him of suc- 
cess, she levied an army of eighteen thousand men. 

Essex landed in Dublin in April, 1599, but, instead of bring- 
ing the war to an end, as had been expected, he found himself, 
at the end of the campaign, unable to effect anything against 
the enemy. By long and tedious marches and sickness, his 
numbers were reduced to four thousand men. 

Essex hearkened, therefore, to a message sent him by Tyrone, 
who desired a conference ; a cessation of arms was agi-eed to, 
and there was reason to suspect he had commenced an unjusti- 
fiable correspondence with the enemy. 

So unexpected an issue of an enterprise, the greatest and 
most expensive that Elizabeth had ever undertaken, provoked 
her greatly against Essex, and she took care to inform him of 
her dissatisfaction, but connnaiided him to remain in Ireland 
until further orders. 

But, fearing that if he remained any longer absent, the queen 
would be totally alienated from him, he immediately set out 
for England, and, making speedy journeys, he arrived at court 
before any one was in the least aware of his intentions. 

Though besmeared with dirt from his journey, he hastened 
upstairs to the presence chambei', thence to the privy chamber, 
nor stopped till he was in the queen's bed-chamber, who was 
newly risen, and was sitting with her hair about her face. lie 
threw himself on his knees, kissed her hand, and had some pri- 
vate conversation witli her, where he was so graciously received 
that on his departure he was heard to express great satisfaction. 
But this placability of Elizabeth was merely the result of sur- 
prise and of the momentary satisfaction which she felt on the 
sudden and unexpected appearance of her favorite. 

When Essex waited on her in the afternoon he found her 
greatly altered in her manner toM*ard him. She ordered him 
to be confined to his apartments and to be examined by the 
council, and, though his answers were calm and submissive, she 
connnitted him to the custody of Lord Keeper Egerton, and 
kept him separate from all company, even from that of his 
countess. 



1600-1.] ELIZABETH. 323 

The queen had often expressed her intentions of having him 
tried bv the star chamber, but her tenderness for him prevailed 
at hist over her severity, and she was content to have liim ex- 
amined before the privy council. They deprived him of all his 
offices, and sentenced him to return to his own house, there to 
remain a prisoner till it should please her majesty to release 
him. Sir Ilobert Cecil, the younger son of Burleigh, who was 
now secretary, used all his intinence to ruin Essex, who was soon 
set at liberty, but not allowed to appear at court. 

He now gave entire reins to violent disposition, and threw 
off all appearance of duty and respect. He secretly courted 
the confidence of the Catholics, but his chief trust lay in the 
Puritans, whom he openly caressed, and whose manners he 
seemed to have etitirely adopted. He engaged the most cele- 
brated preachers of that sect to resort to Essex House, and had 
daily prayers and sermons in his family, and he invited all the 
zealots in London to attend those pious exercises. He also 
indulged himself in great liberties of speech, and was even 
heard to say of the queen that she was now grown an old 
woman, and was become as crooked in her mind as in her body. 
These stories were carried to Elizabeth, who was ever very 
jealous on this head. Essex made secret applications to the 
King of Scotland, and assured him that he was determined to 
use every expedient for extorting an immediate declaration in 
favor of that monarch's right of succession. 

Essex now resorted to more desperate counsels. A select 
council of malcontents was formed, by whom it was agreed that 
Essex should seize the palace, should oblige the queen to as- 
semble Parliament, and should, with common consent, settle a 
new plan of government. The plot was discovered and Essex 
surrendered to the Earl of Nottingham. The queen soon gave 
orders for the trial of the most formidable of the criminals, and 
the Earls of Essex and Southampton were arraigned before a 
jury of twenty-five peers, by whom they were found guilty. 

Essex made a full confession of his disloyalty, in which he 
spared not even his most intimate friends. 

The present situation of Essex called forth all the queen's 
tender affections, and kept her in the greatest agitation and 



324 ELIZABETH. [1601-3. 

irresolution. She signed tlie warrant for his execution ; she 
countermanded it. She again resolved upon his death ; she felt 
a new return of tenderness. What chieflj hardened her heart 
against him, was his supposed obstinacy in never making, as 
slie hourly expected, any application to her for mercy ; and she 
finally gave her consent to his execution. 

He discovered at his death symptoms rather of penitence and 
piety than of fear, and acknowledged the justice of his sentence. 
He was executed February 25, 1001. 

Henry IV. made a journey to Calais, and the queen went to 
Dover, in hope of having a personal interview with a monarch, 
whom, of all otliers, she most loved and respected, but being 
unable to pay her the visit, he sent the Duke de Sully as his 
ambassador. In this interview Elizabeth spoke of King James 
as her successor, Avho, she said, would be king of Great Britain. 
This title originated with her. 

Elizabeth's last parliament met in October, 1001. It made 
great opposition to the oppressive monopolies she had granted, 
and she gracefully gave way, much to the astonishment of the 
liouse ; they voted liberal supplies. The rebellion in Ireland 
was suppi-essed, and the Spaniards expelled by Lord Mountjoy, 
who succeeded in bringing order to tliat country. 

In the early part of the year 1003 Elizabeth suffered from a 
complication of complaints, but her death is supposed to have 
been caused, or hastened, by melancholy brought on by a fatal 
secret, conveyed to her by the Countess of jSTottingham in 
respect to a message from the Earl of Essex, sent the queen 
through that lady, just before his execution, and which her 
husband prevented her from delivering. 

Her end approaching, a council was summoned, and, being 
assembled, sent three members to know her will with regard to 
her successor. She named her kinsman, James, King of Scot- 
land ; her voice soon ai:ter left her, and without a struggle she 
died on March S-tth, in the seventieth year of her age, and 
forty-fifth of her reign. 

Sir Robert Carey loitered in the court-yard of the palace of 
Kichmond, and when at two oYIock in the morning, a light 
placed in a certain window was extinguished, signalling that the 



160;J.] ELIZABETH. 325 

queen was dead, lie mounted liis horse, and galloped off to Scot- 
land, reached Edinburgh on the 2Stli, and saluted James as King 
of England. 

Elizabeth's reign is justly considered one of the most impor- 
tant England has known. The Elizabethan age is one of the 
most brilliant epochs of English history, and the numei'ous 
statesmen, soldiers, scholars, and other intellectual personages 
who then existed, achieved for it a place in the annals of the 
■vvoi'ld, that has never been surpassed. The leading events of 
her life are unquestionable. Of her personal character various 
and M'hollj diverse views have been formed. Froude, at the 
close of his history, thus sums up his judgment respecting her : 
"Her situation from the first was trying; her unlucky attach- 
ment for Leicester made marriage unconquerably distasteful to 
her ; her disappointment gave an additional twist to her natural 
eccentricities. Circumstances, more than choice, threw her 
originally on the side of the reformation ; she found herself 
compelled, against her will, to become the patron of rebels and 
heretics, in whose objects she had no interest, and in whose 
theology she had no belief. She resented the necessity, while 
she submitted to it, and her vacillations are explained by the 
reluctance with which each successive step was forced upon 
her, on a road which slie detested. Her keenness of insight 
Avas not combined for any profound concern for serious things. 
She was without the intellectual emotions which give human 
character its consistency and pow6r. One moral quality she 
possessed in an eminent degree : she was supremely brave ; for 
thirty years she was perpetually the mark for assassination, 
and her spirits were never affected, and she was never friglit- 
ened into cruelty. She had a proper contempt also for idle 
luxury and indulgence ; she lived simply, worked hard, and ruled 
her household with rigid economy ; but her vanitj' was insatiate 
and connnonplace. Mercy was the quality with whicli she was 
most eager to be credited. ITnlike her father who always struck 
tlie leaders and spared the followers, she could rarely bring her- 
self to sign a death-warrant of a noljleman, yet without com- 
punction she M'ould order Yorkshire peasants to be hanged by 
scores, and she owed her safety and her success to the incajjacity 



326 ELIZABETH. 

and divisions of her enemies rather than to wisdom and to reso- 
hition of her own." 

Tlie many ai'bitrarj acts of power exercised by the Tudors 
have, by some historians, been ascribed to an actnal increase of 
the prerogative, nor can it be justly doul)ted that the crown 
gained an accession of strengtli under that dynasty. To be 
persuaded of this, we need only advert to the succession of the 
crown. 

Under the early Phantagenets the notion was not altogether 
obsolete that the sovereign was, in a certain degree, elective, 
and the invariable right of succession in the eldest branch was 
not completely established till the reign of Edward I. But 
under Henry VIII. an act was passed empowering that monarch 
to bequeath the crown to whomsoever he pleased, even to one 
not of the blood royal. 

So, too, an alteration was made in the coronation oath of 
Edward YL, and that prince was crowned as the rightful and 
undoubted heir before he had sworn to preserve the liberties of 
the realm, and without the consent of the people being asked to 
his accession. 

This augmented power of the crown under the Tudors was 
not supported by military force, and seems to have rested 
mainly upon public opinion. Such a state of opinion was a 
natural consequence of the long and biood}' wars of the Hoses, 
which, being carried on merely for the choice of a sovereign, 
must have hlled the public mind with an exaggerated idea of 
his personal importance. 

The same wars, however, undoul)tedly added to the material 
as well as to the ideal power of the crown. The great nobility 
were nearly exterminated by them, who had hitherto been the 
chief support of the people in their struggles with the throne. 
•The nobles were further overawed and depressed by several 
severe and unjust executions, as those of the Earl of Warwick, 
the Earl of Suffolk, and the Duke of Buckingham, imder Henry 
VIII. , and of several others in the subsequent reigns. On the 
other hand, the dissolution of the monasteries and other en- 
croachments upon the property of the church supplied Henry 
and his successors with funds to purchase the affection of the 



ELIZABETH. 327 

nobles, and to attach them by the grateful bonds of self-in- 
terest. 

Yet, in theory at least, the constitution remained intact, how- 
ever it might sometimes be violated in practice. This is evi- 
dent from several works written in the reign of Elizabeth, 
which represented the English constitution as a monarchy 
limited by law. The two chief privileges of Parliament, that 
of legislation and that of taxation, were regarded as indisput- 
able. Henry VIII. procured, indeed, a statute to enable the 
king, on attaining the age of twenty-four, to repeal any acts 
passed since his accession, and another to give his proclamations 
the force of laws. Yet here the constitution is acknowledged 
in the ve?l"y breach and suspension of it ; for the king does not 
assume these powers, but has them conferred upon him by Par- 
liament. On the other hand, the parliamentary right of taxa- 
tion was sometimes evaded, or attempted to be evaded, by the 
crown. 

Tlia sovereigns of this period still continued to derive an in- 
come from some feudal rights ; another source of income was 
the sale of pardons, and sometimes of bishoprics. The sovereign 
also enjoyed the means of rewarding his favorites and adherents 
by the erection of monopolies ; that is, the granting of patents 
for the exclusive sale of certain articles. Toward the close of 
Elizabeth's, reign this abuse had reached an intolerable height, 
and some of tlie most necessary articles of life, as salt, iron, 
calf -skins, train-oil, vinegar, coals, lead, paper, and a great many 
more, were in the hands of patentees. 

Parliament was at length aroused, and some stormy debates 
ensued, and Elizabeth was obliged to promise that the monopo- 
lies complained of should be abolished ; but it does not appear 
that her word was very strictly kept. 

If we turn our attention from constitutional questions to the 
general state of the nation, we must, on the whole, pronounce 
the period of the Tudors to have been one of advancement and 
improvement. The arms and negotiations of Henry VIIL, 
though hot always well dii-ected, extended English influence on 
the continent, and though this advantage was lost in the short 
and inglorious reign of Mary, which threatened to make Eng- 



328 ELIZABETH. [1603. 

land a Spanisli province, it was more than recovered under 
Elizabeth. 

Contemporary Rulers. — Scotland : Mary, James VI. ; 
France: Henry II., Francis IL, Charles IX., Henry III., 
Henry IV. ; Emperors of the West : Ferdinand L, Maximilian 
IL, Eudolph II. ; Spain : Philip I., Philip II. 




THE HOUSE OF STUART. 



A.D. 1603-1714. 



The House of Stuart originated witli Walter, Lord High 
Steward of Scotland, who in the year 1315 married Margery, 
only daughter and presumptive heir of Rohert Bruce, King 
of Scotland, by Gartheny, his queen, sister of the Earl of Mar. 

The year following the marriage, Margeiy was travelling 
from Paisley to Renfrew Castle, and, being l)ig w^itli child, lost 
her life by a fall from a horse. The child, a son, was taken 
alive from her person by the Caesarian mode; he lived, and on 
March 27, 1371, ascended the throne of Scotland as Ilobert IL, 
and was the first monarch of the Stuart line. 

On April 4, 1373, the Scottish Pai'liauient passed a Bill of 
Succession ; first to Robert's oldest son John, and his heirs ; 
failing issue, then Robert's sons by his second marriage, and 
their heirs. Robert was succeeded by his son John, but that 
name being considered unfortunate he changed it, and in 1390 
ascended the throne as Robert III. In 1405 he was succeeded 
by his second son as James I. ; his great grandson, James TV., 
in 1502 married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII. of 
England, by which marriage the Stuarts inherited the crown of 
England in the person of Queen Margaret's great grandson, 
James I., King of England. 



330 JAMES I. [1603. 




James I. — A.D. 1603-1625. 

Bom.at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566. 

Crowned King of England, July 25, 1603. 

Married Ann, daughter of Frederick II., King of Denmark, August 20, 1589. 

Issue : 
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, died a3t. 19. 
Charles, who succeeded to the throne. 
Robert, Earl of Carrick. 

Elizabeth, married Frederick V., Elector Palatine of the Rhine and King of 
Bohemia. Issue : 

Charles Louis, whose daughter married Philip of Orleans, ancestor of 

King Louis Philippe. 
Rupert, Duke of Cumberland — the Prince Rupert of the civil war. 
Maurice. 
Edward. 
Philip. 

Elizabeth, abbess. 
Louisa, abbess. 
Henrietta. 

Sophia, married Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, by whom she 
had issue : 

George Louis, first King of England of line of Brunswick. 
Frederic Augustus. 
Maximilian. 
Charles Philip. 
Christian. 
Ernest Augustus. 
Sophia Charlotte. 
Mary, born April 8, 1605, died 1607. 
Sophia, born June 23,' 1606, died next day. 

James I. of England and Vl. of Scotland, son of Mary 
Stuart, Queen of Scotland, and Henry, Lord Darnley, was born 
in Edinburgh Castle, June 19, 15G6. His reign commenced in 
Scotland the following year, when his mother, the queen, was 



1603.1 JAMES I. 331 

dethroned, and the power passed to the hands of the Protestant 
party. He resided in StirHng Castle for many years under tlie 
gnai'dianship of the Earl of Mar, and his principal preceptor 
was George Buchanan, who, on being reproached for having 
made the king a pedant, declared it was the best he could make 
of him. 

During his nunority the contest between kingsinen and 
queensmen was bitterly waged, and the Earls of Murray, Len- 
nox, Mar, and Moi-ton were successively regents. 

In the year 15 77, on the overthrow of Morton, James as- 
sumed power, and the following year this assumption was con- 
firmed by Parliament. He early exhibited that fondness for 
masculine favorites which has left a cloud on his name. He 
was seized by some of his iiobility in the year 15S2, but recov- 
ered his liberty and power, and banished his enemies ; the lat- 
ter returned in 1585, and forced the king to capitulate. 

He repeatedly sought, but ineffectually, to save his mother's 
life when she had been sentenced to death in England. 
• In the year 1589 he made a voyage to Dennuirk, and married 
Anne, second daughter of Frederick II, 

His reign was greatly disturbed by internal troubles between 
the nobles, clergy, and citizens of Edinburgh. He endeavored 
to restore episcopacy, but without success. 

The crown of England was never transmitted from father to 
son with greater tranquillity than it passed from the house of 
Tudor to that of Stuart. 

During the reign of Elizabeth the eyes of the whole people 
had been employed in search for her successor, and when old 
age made the prospect of her death more immediate, there ap- 
peared none but James, King of Scotland, who could advance 
any just claim or pretension to the crown. 

He was the great grandson of Margaret, elder daughter of 
Henry VII., who nuirried James lY., King of Scotland, and, 
on the failure of -the male line, his hereditary right remained 
unquestionable. If the religion of his mother, Mary, Queen of 
Scots, as well as other prejudices, had caused an objectic)n to 
her succession, these were entirely personal, and would not 
stand in regard to her son. 



332 JAMES I. [1603. 

If the will of Iloiiiy YIII., confirmed bj act of Parliament, 
liad excluded the Scottish line, the tyranny and caprices of that 
monarch had been so marked, that a settlement of this nature, 
unsupported by any just reason, had no authority with the peo- 
ple. Queen Elizabeth, too, with her dying breath, had recog- 
nized the title of her kinsman James ; and the whole nation 
seemed to prepare themselves with joy for his i-eception. 

James was proclaimed king March 24, 1003. He left Edin- 
burgh on April 5th foll()wing. and journeyed to London, Ids 
clumsy person and awkward manners making an unfavorable 
impression on his new subjects. On his arrival there, he found 
the nation in a flourishing condition, possessed of every advan- 
tage, except in the person of the king, who could not compare 
with his illustrious predecessor, 

James had brought with him from Scotland a great number 
of his courtiers, whose impatience and importunity were apt, in 
many particulars, to impose on the easy natui'e of their master. 

The Duke of Lennox, the Earl of Mar, Lords Hume and 
Kinross, Sir George Hume, and Secretary Elphinstone were im- 
mediately added to the Privy Council, and within six weeks 
after his arrival in London he is said to have conferred the 
order of knighthood 'on no less than two hundred and thirty - 
seven persons, and everj^ one was sensible that the king, by his 
lavish and premature granting of favors, had lessened and in- 
jured the dignity of the order. It must, however, be acknowl- 
edged, in justice to him, that he left almost all the chief offices 
in the hands of Elizabeth's ministers. 

Among these Secretary' Cecil, created successively Lord 
Effingdon, Viscount Cranborne, and Earl of Salisbury, was al- 
ways regarded as his Prime Minister and Chief Councillor. 

The capacity of James and his councillors in negotiation was 
immediately put to trial, on the arrival of ambassadors from 
almost all the principal countries of Europe, to congratulate 
him on his accession. 

He early made a treaty M'ith Henry lY., King of France, 
for mutual defence against the King of Spain ; this treaty was 
considered one of the wisest and most equitable made by James 
durino; the whole course of his reign. 



1604.] JAMES I. 333 

Amidst the great tranquillity with which tlie nation was 
blessed, both at home and abroad, nothing could be more sur- 
prising than the discovery of a conspiracy to overturn the 
government, and to place Arabella Stuart on the throne. 

She was a cousin of the king, daughter of the Duke of Len- 
nox, and also descended from Henry VII. The principal con- 
spirators were Lords Grey and Cobham, Sir Walter llaleigh, 
Sir Griffin Markham, Sir Edward Parham, Messrs. Broke 
and Copeley, and two priests, Clarke and Watson. The con- 
spiracy being discovered, the principals were tried and found 
guilty ; the two priests and Broke were executed ; Grey and 
Martin were pardoned after they had their heads on the block ; 
llaleigh was reprieved and remained in prison thirteen years. 

James called a conference of divines at Llampton Court, 
earh' in the year 1G()4, concerning points of faith and disci- 
pline, and tried to settle the dispute between the Church and 
the Puritans, but both parties separated with mutual dissatis- 
faction, the king being violently opposed to tlie latter, as he 
found them generally men of low birth, with a violent turn 
toward Republicanism. ' 

The first parliament assembled on March 19, IGO-l, being 
long delayed on account of the plague which had broken out in 
London, thirty thousand persons having died of it in one year, 
though the city then contained only one hundred and fifty thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

The chief matter which James presented in his speech to the 
House was a union between England and Scotland, an object 
wdiich he had sincerely at heart, and which he thought might 
now be conveniently effected, since the two countries were now 
placed under the guidance of one sovereign. 

Unfortunately, prejudices were entertained in both countries 
against the measure, and the parliaments of both kingdoms 
were prevailed upon to appoint a commission to meet in Lon- 
don, on the 20th of October following, and there consider the 
possibility of the union. 

The first business the House brought forward was one of 
privilege, in respect to the return of members of that house, 
and the power of the crown. The king declared himself abso- 



334 JAMES I. tlG04-5. 

lute, but by the appointment of a couuiiittee by tlie House, 
to confer with tlie judges, before tlie king and his councillors, 
the power he assumed appeared a little more doubtful than he 
had previously imagined it, and mutual concessions were made. 

But the spirit of the time was changed ; men's minds were 
becoming more enlightened, and the love of fi'eedom was gain- 
ing strength. The severe Init popular govei'nment of Elizabeth 
had confined this rising spirit, l)ut with a king less dreaded, 
and less beloved, symptoms innnediately appeared of a more 
free and independent spirit in the people. 

James, of his own accord, called in and annulled the patents 
for monopolies, which had been granted by his predecessor, 
and M'hich had fettered every species of domestic industry. 

Peace was finally concluded with Spain, and the treaty was 
signed in London by the Spanish ambassador, Angust IS, 1604. 

James, anticipating the meeting of connnissioners, issued his 
proclamation on the 4th of October, 1604, in which he declared 
his will and pleasure, tiiat the name of England and Scotland 
should be abolished, and the general name of Great Britain 
substituted for both. He. also ordered that the cross of St. 
Andrew should take its place beside that of St. George, on the 
English fiag, which was then called the Union Jack. 

The gunpowder plot, in 1605, was caused by the disappoint- 
ment of some Catholics who had been encouraged to hope for 
the mitigation of the penal laws nnder which they suffered. 
It originated with one Robert Catesby, a gentleman of good 
position, and of an ancient family, who opened his plan to 
Percy, a descendant of the illustrious lionse of Northumber- 
land. They obtained the paid services of Guy Fawkes, a 
needy Yorkshire gentlemen, who had been in the Spanish 
army. The intention was that on the opening of Parliament, 
]S[ovember 5, 1605, the king, queen, mend)ers of the royal fam- 
ily, lords, and commons, should all be l)l()wn up l)y gunpowder. 
The plan became known through an anonymous letter sent to 
Lord Monteagle, a Roman Catholic peer, advising him not to 
attend the opening of the House. He showed the letter to the 
Secretary of State, the Earl of Salisbury, when a search was 
made, the powder was discovered under a pile of wood in the 



1605-10.] JAMES I. 335 

cellars of the house, a train laid, and Gny Fawkes all ready, 
with the match fired, waiting for the signal. lie was taken 
prisoner and tortured on the rack, but would not confess who 
were his accomplices. The other conspirators, to the number 
of eighty, hearing of the failure, escaped to AYar wick shire, 
where they were soon surrounded, and Catesby, Percj-, and 
some of the minor prisoners were killed, the others taken pris- 
oners, tried, and executed. 

This horriljle project occasioned the passing of new laws, 
which made the condition of the Romanists worse than before. 

The little concern which James took in foreign aifairs ren- 
dered the domestic occurrences, particularly those of Parlia- 
ment, the most interesting of his reign. 

The complaints of the merchants were loud against Spanish 
depredations, and the Lower House sent a message to the Lords, 
desiring a conference on the subject, but before anything was 
done, the king prorogued Parliament. 

An insurrection of the country people was raised in Xorth- 
amptonshire, headed by one Eeynolds, in 1607, but, it was 
easily suppressed, and, though great lenity was sliowni to the 
rioters, some of the ringleaders were punished. 

The following two years present nothing remarkable. 

A session of Parliament was held February 9, IGIO. The prin- 
cipal matter brought before the House was the granting of sup- 
plies. The Earl of Salisbury, now created Lord Treasui-er, in 
asking for the grant, mentioned the numerous establishments the 
king was obliged to maintain for himself, the queen, and Prince 
Henry, and compared it with the court of Queen Elizaljeth, a 
single woman, who had received much larger sums ; he stated 
that the crown was burdened with a debt of £300,000, whicli 
necessitated an immediate and large supply from the people. 

After much debate and great dilficulty the House voted one- 
third the sum rec^uired. 

Bills were passed by the Commons abolishing tonnage dues, 
the practice of borrowing money on privy seals, or the estab- 
lisliment of any ecclesiastical canon without the consent of Par- 
liament, all of which were rejected by the Lords. Soon after 
James dissolved this, his first parliament, 1610. 



336 JAMES I. [IGIO-U. 

The murder of King Henry IV. of Fj-ance bj the fanatical 
Ravaillae, on May 3, IGIO, gave great alarm to England. With 
his death the glory of that monarchy suffered an eclipse for 
several years, it having fallen under an administration equally 
weak, bigoted, and factious. 

James now boasted of his management of Ireland, and accord- 
ing to Sir John Davis he deserved some credit, as, after the 
sul)jection of that country under Elizabeth, the more difficult 
task still remained of civilizing the inhabitants and reconciling 
them to the laws. James proceeded in this work by a steady, 
regular, and well-concerted plan, and in the space of nine years 
made greater advances toward the reformation of that kimrdom 
than had l)een made in the four hundred years since the conquest 
was first attempted. 

The death of Henry, Prince of "Wales, in his eighteenth year, 
Ts^ovembei' 6, 1012, caused universal gi'ief throughout the king- 
dom. The same year two witches were burned at Smithfield, 
the last execution of this kind in England. 

The marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with Frederick, Elec- 
tor Palatine, was celebrated on February ll, IGll. That prin- 
cess was the ancestress of the present British royal family. 

In this reign the title of baronet was created. The Earl of 
Salisbury was dead, and the Earl of Suffolk, a man of small 
capacity, had succeeded to his office, and it was now his task to 
supply an exhausted treasmy. The means he used was the sale 
of two hundred patents of that knighthood, eacli for the sum of 
£1,000. The ranks of nobility also had, each, its price affixed 
to it ; loans were raised on privy seals to the amount of £200,- 
000 ; " benevolences " were exacted to the amount of £52,000, 
and some monopolies were established. Cut all these expedients 
proved insufficient to supply the king's necessities, and he began 
to retrench his expenses. 

A new parliament M^as summoned April 5, IGll, when, in- 
stead of entering on the l)usiness of supply, the House resumed 
the subjects which had been before the late parliament and re- 
jected by the Lords; without completing any business, the 
king dissolved the House with great indignation on June 6, 
1614. 



1614-18.] JAMES I. gg'jT 

At this time appeared at court a young gentleman, George 
Villiers, a younger son of a good family, who was appointed 
cup-bearer to the king ; he soon became his favorite, and in the 
short space of one year, owing to the fall of Somerset, had at- 
tained to riches and honor. 

James visited Scotland in May, 1617, in order to renew his 
old friendships and connections, and to introduce a change 
in the ecclesiastical discipline and government, but which lie 
could not effect, and, dreading trouble, gave np the idea of 
reform. 

In the year 1615 Sir Walter Haleigh was released from the 
Tower and allowed to make his voyage to the coast of Guiana. 
James refused to grant him a pardon, as he meant to hold his 
former sentence as a check on his future behavior. 

Raleigh sailed for Guiana with a fleet and many adventurers 
in search of a mine on that coast. Arriving at the mouth of 
the riv^er Orinoko, he sent a detachment under his son to St. 
Thomas, a town a few miles up the river, where they were at- 
tacked and young Raleigh killed ; they carried on the attack 
and got possession of the town, but found no mine or treasure. 
The other adv^enturers now concluded they were deceived bv 
Raleigh and determined to return home. The Spaniards de- 
manded his punishment for the sacking and burning of St. 
Thomas, and to satisfy that court the king made use of tliat 
power he had reserved in his hands, and signed the warrant for 
Raleigh's execution upon his former sentence, and on October 
29, 1618, he was beheaded. 

Villiers was now created viscount, earl, and marquis, and, 
shortly after, Duke of Buckingham, Knight of the Garter, Mas- 
ter of the Horse, Warden of the Cinque Ports, and Constable 
of Windsor Castle. 

James's foreign policy was now considered in England dis- 
graceful, and caused much dissatisfaction there, particularly 
owing to the contract made with Elizabeth, and because when 
the thirty years' war broke out, though it involved the fate of 
his daughter and son-in-law Frederic, and they lost their domin- 
ions, becoming exiles and beggars, he would do nothing for 
them. 



33S JAMES I. [1019-::4. 

Ilis Queen Anne died Marcli 3, IGIO, in the forty-liftli year 
of lier age. 

Parliament met June G, 1G21. The members seemed deter- 
mined to sacritice everything in ordfr to maintain a good corre- 
spondence with the king, and being informed that he had remitted 
hirge sums to the Pahitine, voted him two subsidies without a 
negative vote, and that, too, at the very beginning of the session. 

Tliey then in a temperate manner proceeded to the examina- 
tion of grievances, which were soon redressed and extortionists 
punished. Encouraged by their success, the Commons carried 
their scrutiny into abuses of greater importance. The great 
seal was at that time held by the celebrated Bacon, a man miiver- 
sally admired for the greatness of his genius, but his want of 
economy and lavish expenditure had greatly involved him, and 
in order to supply his prodigality he was .in the habit of taking 
bribes in the name of presents from suitors in Chancer}'. Com- 
plaints having reached the House of Commons he was im- 
peached, tried, and found guilty; he was sentenced to pay a fine 
of £40,000, to be imprisoned in the Tower during the king's 
pleasure, and to be forever ineligible for any office or place in 
the gift of the government. 

The Commons now entertained the idea that they were the 
great patrons of the people, and that the redress of all griev- 
ances must come from them, and in their zeal invaded the king''8 
authority, which brought on a rupture between them. James 
having imprisoned a few of the leading members, prorogued 
the House, and soon afterward dissolved it by proclamation. 

A leading object with the king was to conciliate Spain and 
obtain the hand of the Spanish Infanta for his son, the Piince 
of Wales. Other means having failed, Buckingham, Avho now 
ruled both king and prince, persuaded Prince Charles to 
proceed to Spain and urge his own suit there. This journey 
only led to disappointment, Buckingham having taken offence, 
and being, it is said, the cause of the marriage not taking 
place. 

The hand of the Princess Henrietta Maria, daughter of 
Henry IV. of France, was now sought for Charles, and an 
alliance with that country against Austria was entered into. A 



1024-5.] JAMES I. 339 

small force was sent to the continent to help the Protestant 
cause there, and this was followed by a larger one ; but the 
first accomplished nothing, and of the second one-half of the 
men perished of the plague on board their ships, France and 
Holland not allowing them to land. 

Buckingham's favor with the king was now lost, but he had 
great influence with the Prince of Wales ; and the king falling- 
sick^ the duke and his mother were suspected of having poisoned 
him, but his death was really caused by tertian ague, acting on 
a constitution undermined by intemperance, chagrin, and mor- 
tification. 

He died on March 27, 1025, in the fifty-ninth year of his age 
and the twenty-second year of his reign over England and 
thirty-sixth year over Scotland. 

The most remarkable event of James's reign was the author- 
ized ti-anslation of the Bible into English, which was done 
nnder his patronage and direction. He was a man of consider- 
able learnino;, but his scholarship was deformed by the most 
offensive pedantry, as his writings were the grossest superstition, 
witches being the especial object of his fear, hatred, and perse- 
cution. He possessed many virtues, but scarcely any of them 
pure or free, as they were accompanied by corresponding vices. 
His generosity Ijordered on profusion, his wisdom on cunning, 
his friendship on light, fancy, and boyish fondness. His capa- 
bilities were considerable, but fitter for general than intricate 
business. Awkward and ungainly, he was ill cpialified to com- 
mand respect ; of a feeble temper rather than of a frail judg- 
ment. Upon the whole, it may be said of his character that all 
his qualities were sullied with M^eakness and embellished with 
humanity. 

James left only one son, Charles, Prince of Wales, who suc- 
ceeded him, and one daughter, Elizabeth, married to the Elector 
Palatine. 

Contemporary Pulers. — Erance : Henry IV., Louis XIII. ; 
Emperors of the West : Pudolph, Matthias, Ferdinand II. ; 
Spain : Philip III., Philip IV. 



340 CHARLES I. [1625. 

Charles I. — A.D. 1625-1649. 

Born at Dunfermline, Scotland, November 19, IGOO. 

Crowned February 2, 102G. 

Married, May, 162G, Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. 

Issue : 
Charles, Duke of Cornwall ; bom and died in 1628. 
Charles, Prince of Wales. 

James, Duke of York, who succeeded his brother as second of that name. 
Henry, Duke of Gloucester. 
Mary, born November 6, 1031 ; married William II., Prince of Orange, by 

whom she left one son, William Henry, afterward William III. 
Elizabeth. 
Anne. 
Henrietta. 

Charles, second son of James I. and his queen, Anne of 
Denmark, was Lorn at Dunferndine, Fifeshire, Scotland, ISTov- 
ember 19, IGOO. 

He became lieir apparent to the crown of Enghind on the 
death of his brother, Ilenrj, Novendjer C, 1012, and was created 
Prince of Wales four years after. 

lie early fell under tlie influence of his father's favorite, the 
Duke of Buckingham, and in 1023 went with him, incognito, 
to Madrid, to confirm his marriage with the Infanta of Spain. 
They travelled under the names of John and Thomas Smith, 
and arrived at the house of the Earl of Bristol, the English 
ambassador there, on March 7th. 

lie was received by King Philip with the greatest considera- 
tion. He conferred on him the golden key of the palace, and 
accorded him the pomp and ceremony due to the kings of 
Spain. The Infanta, however, was only shown to the prince 
in the preseiice of the court, Spanish ideas not allowing any 
nearer intercourse until receipt of a dispensation of marriage 
from the Pope. 

A marriage treatv was soon concluded, in which nothing 
could be found fault with, except the arrangement concerning 
the education of the children, which was inserted by the Pope, 
Gregory XY. He soon after died, and Urban YIIL, his suc- 
cessor, delayed sending a new dispensation, in hope of extorting 
fresh concessions. As a further impediment, the condition was 



1625.] CHARLES I. ^4:1 

imposed that tlie Infanta should remain a year in Spain after 
lier marriage. 

Charles chafed against tliese restrictions. Month after month 
passed away and he was no nearer tlie attainment of his object. 
King James also became impatient. On the first hint, Charles 
obtained permission to return, and Philip attended his departure 
■with the same ceremony with which he had received him. But 
Charles felt deep resentment, in wliicli he was encouraged by 
Buckingham, out of spite for the neglect he had r-eceived, and 
Charles fully determined to break the treaty. lie reached 
England October 5tli. James, finding his son opposed to the 
match, which had always been repugnant to his people and 
Parliament, yielded to difficulties which he could not over- 
come. 

This early enterprise was most unfortunate as being the be- 
ginning of that course of dissimulation and insincerity which 
was the great defect of Charles's whole career. There was 
great joy in England when the match was broken off. Buck- 
ingham assumed the credit of the deed, and soon arranged a 
marriage with the Princess Henrietta Maria, daughter of 
Henry TV., King of France, and his second wife, Maria de Medici. 

James I. died before the marriage was ratified, but on March 
30tli, three days after the accession of Charles, the ratification 
took place, and they were married by proxy at Notre Dame, 
Paris, on June 12tli, and a few days after the queen was 
received by Charles at Dover. They journeyed to Canterburv, 
where the marriage was consummated. Owing to the preva- 
lence of the plague in London, they took up their residence at 
Hampton Court. 

The marriage was an inauspicious one. All its influences, 
both social and political, were of evil consequences to both the 
kino; and the kino-dom. 

Charles was proclaimed king March 27, 1625. His first act 
was to issue writs for a new parliament to meet on June ISth, 
at Westminster, for tlie despatch of business. 

At the close of the last reign twelve thousand men, under 
Mansfield, were levied in England, and sent over to Holland, 
which had renewed the war with S2:)ain. 



342 CHARLES I. [1625. 

The speecli from the throne, on the opening of Parliament, 
was full of simplicity and cordiality. The king mentioned 
lightly the occasion he had for supply, and employed no in- 
trigue to influence the members, lie resolved that their liber- 
ality should be entirely their own deed, unasked and unsolicited, 
the genuine fruit of their conlidence and regard. 

The House accordingly entered upon the business of supply. 
They knew that the money granted l)y the last Parliament had 
been expended on naval and military armaments ; they were 
aware that Charles was loaded by a great debt, contracted bj" 
his father ; they were sensible that the present war was the 
result of their own entreaties, and that they solemnly engaged 
to support their sovereign in the management of it ; and they 
were well acquainted with the difficulty of military operations, 
conducted against such powerful enemies, particularly Ferdi- 
nand, the most fortunate monarch of his age. 

To answer, therefore, all the great and important ends ; to 
satisfy their young king in the first request he had made them, 
the House of Commons, conducted by the wisest and ablest 
senators that had ever flourished hi England, thought proper to 
grant a supply for the paltry sum of £112,000. 

This measure, which shows a cruel mockery, rather than a 
serious intention of supporting the king, appears so extraordi- 
nary when considered in all its circumstances. As the parlia- 
ment was composed of persons of various conditions, it is not 
probable they were influenced by the same motives, and few 
declared openly their true reasons, and it is not doubted that ill- 
will against the Duke of Buckingham had an influence with 
many. The Pmltanical party, though disguised, had now a great 
power throughout the kingdom, and many of the leaders in the 
Commons had secretly embraced the strict tenets of that sect. 
All these were disgusted with the court and the established 
hierarchy, on account of the restraint under which they were 
held. 

The House of Commons was now governed by a set of men 
of great capacity, who were now formed into a regular party, 
and united as well by fixed aims as by the hardships which 
many of them had undergone in the prosecution of them. 



16':5-G.] CHARLES I. 343 

Among these were Sir Edward Coke, Sir Edwin Sandys, Sir 
Robert Philips, Sir Francis Seymore, Sir Dudley Digges, Sir 
John Eliot, Sir Thomas Wentworth, Mr. Selden, and Mr. Pym. 
Animated with a warm regard for liberty, these patriots saw 
with regret the great power exercised by the crown, and were 
resolved to seize the opportunity of the king's necessities, and 
reduce his prerogative within a more reasonable compass ; and 
they now beheld the king involved in a foreign war, which ren- 
dered him every day more dependent on tlie Parliament, while 
at the same time the situation of the kingdom, even Mdthout 
any military preparations, gave it sufficient security against 
invasion. 

The lofty ideas of monarchical power was firmly riveted in 
Charles, and he regarded the conduct of the house as but one 
degree removed from open sedition and rebellion. The plague 
now raged in London, and Parliament adjourned on July 11th, 
to meet in Oxford on August 1st, where he made another at- 
tempt to gain from them a new supply. Cut the Commons 
remained iuexorable, although the king departed from his ex- 
clusiveness, and gave the house full particulars of the alliances 
he had formed and the operations he projected. 

Parliament renewed their complaints against the growth of 
popery, and demanded a strict execution of the penal JaAvs. 
Charles, though a determined Protestant, entertained no violent 
horror against popery,^ and thought some humanity was due 
from the nation to the religion of their ancestors ; an abate- 
ment of the more rigorous laws was all he intended, and his 
engagements with France required some indulgence. 

Finding that Parliament was resolved to grant liim no supply, 
the king took advantage of the plague appearing at Oxford, and, 
on that pretence, dissolved the house on August 12th. 

To supply the want of parliamentary aid, Charles issued 
privy seals and borrowed money, by which means he equipped 
his fleet and carried on the war with Spain. 

On February 6, 1626, a second Parliament was called. It 
was as unready to vote money as the former one ; Buckingham 
was impeached, and before it had perfected any one act it was 
dissolved, and more money was raised on royal authority. In 



344 CHARLES I. [1637-8. 

order to equip a fleet, a distrilnition was made, by an order in 
council, on all maritime towns ; each of them was required to 
arm so many vessels as were allotted them ; the city of London 
was rated at twenty ships. 

Charles now plunged into a war with France, and tried to 
carry on both wars by benevolences and forced loans, but all 
Avere inadequate, and he was at length obliged to call a third 
Parliament, which met March IT, 1628. 

The members of this house appeared to be of the same inde- 
Y)endent spirit as their predecessors, and possessed of great 
riches ; tliey were sent by boroughs and counties, incensed all 
of them by the violations of liberty. In this body the oppo- 
sition was stronger than ever ; they framed a petition of right, 
which claimed that the king should not levy taxes, except with 
consent of Parliament, nor subject the people to trials by court 
martial, nor imprison any subject unless by due process of law. 
Upon assent of this was conditional any grant of money. 
Charles at length agreed to this petition, and there was great 
rejoicing among the people ; but after getting the money voted 
he imprisoned Eliot and other distinguished members of the 
house. In the meantime the English arms were covered with 
disgrace ; the Earl of Denbigh, ha\'ing declined to attack the 
French fleet, was accused of cowardice. 

The king still persisted in retaining Buckingham at the head 
both of his council and of his army, and that favorite was on 
the point of setting sail from Portsmouth, at the head of an 
expedition for the coast of France, when he was assassinated by 
one Felton, who had served under him as a captain. When the 
king was informed of the assassination, he appeared at heart not 
displeased to be rid of a minister so generally disliked by the 
nation. 

The expedition sailed under the Earl of Lindsey, but was too 
late and too inetflcient to relieve La Pochelle, which, after 
having had the most positive assurance of relief from Charles, 
and after incrediljlo sufferings, was obliged to surrender. Of 
fifteen thousand persons shut up in the city, four thousand oid}' 
survived the fatigue and famine they had undergone. 

The failure of an enterprise in which the English nation, from 



1629.] CHARLES I. 345 

religious sympatli}', so inucli interested themselves, could not 
but diminish the king's authoi'ity in the Parliament during the 
approaching session, but the Commons, when assembled, found 
many other causes of complaint. The House met on January 
20, 1629, and immediately commenced the business, by stating 
their general dissatisfaction. Mainwaring's pardon and promo- 
tion were taken notice of. Sibthorpe and Couzins, two clergy- 
men, who for like reasons, Avere no less obnoxious to the Com- 
mons, had met with like favor from the king ; Montague, who 
had been censured for moderation toward the Catholics, the 
greatest of crimes, had been created Bishop of Chichester ; and 
all the copies of the petition of right, which were distributed, 
had, by the king's orders, annexed to them the first answer, 
which had given so little satisfaction to the Commons, whereby 
he endeavored to persuade the people that he had in no way 
receded from his former claims and pretensions with regard to 
levying of tonnage and poundage. 

A remonstrance was framed against the levying of such tax 
unless by consent of Parliament, and offered to the clerk to 
read. It was refused. Sir John Eliot, the proposer, read it 
himself ; the question being then called for, the Speaker said 
that he had a command from the king to adjourn and put no 
cpiestion, upon which he rose and left the chair. The whole 
House was in an uproar. The Speaker was pushed back into the 
chair, and forcibly held in it by two members until a short re- 
monstrance was framed, and passed by acclamation. Papists and 
Arminians were there declared enemies to the connnonwealth ; 
those who levied tonnage and poundage were branded with the 
same epithet. 

The doors being locked, the Gentleman Usher of the House 
of Lords, who was sent by the king, could not get admittance 
imtil the remonstrance was finished. By the king's order he 
took the mace from the table, which ended their proceedings, 
and a few days afterward Parliament was dissolved. 

Charles, naturally disgusted with parliaments, who, he found, 
were determined to proceed against him with unmitigated 
vigor, both in invading his prerogative and refusing him all 
supply, resolved not to call any more mitil he could see 



34:6 CHARLES I. [1629. 

greater indications of a more compliant disposition in the 
nation. 

Bnt being now witliont snpply lie was obliged to make peace 
with France and Spain. The latter power, to regain the good- 
will of England, released and sent home all the prisoners taken 
in the expedition against Cadiz, which example was imitated by 
France after the retreat of the English from the Isle of Hhe. 

England's foreign relations were now in a satisfactory con- 
dition, and the affairs of Europe were so equally divided between 
the riv^al houses of Austria and Bourbon, whose opposite in- 
terests and mutual jealousies secured the tranqnillity of Great 
Britain, and during the remainder of Charles's reign, he seems 
to have little regarded foreign affairs. 

After the death of Buckingham, who had somewhat alienated 
Charles from his queen, she is to be considered his chief friend 
and favorite ; he was a kind husband, an indulgent father, a 
gentle master, a steadfast friend. As a monarch, in his exterior 
qualities, he excelled, but the high idea of his own authority, 
wliicli he had imbibed from his father, made him incapable of 
giving way to the sj^irit of liberty, which then began to prevail 
among his sul)jects. 

Fie now adopted tlie principle, that whenever popular leaders 
encroach too much on royal authority, some office of power 
should be conferred upon them, believing that they would then 
become more careful not to diminish that power which had 
become their own ; a sure proof that a secret revolution had 
happened, that necessitated him to adopt such a change in the 
government. 

This was the case with Sir Thomas Wentworth, a Puritan 
member of the late house, whom the king first created a baron, 
then viscount, and afterward Earl of Strafford, and regarded 
him as his first minister and chief councillor. 

In all ecclesiastical affairs, and even in civil, Laud, Bishop of 
London, and afterward Archlnshop of Canterbury, had great 
influence over the king, and his ol)ject was to lead the nation 
back l)y gradual steps to the religion of their ancestors. 

And Stratford, a man of gi'eat ability but of unscrupulous char- 
acter, resolved to make Charles, in fact, the absolute monarch 



1639-37. CHARLES I. 347 

he claimed to be, and lie saw the means to this end was a stand- 
ing army. 

Charles issued a proclamation in which he declared, that 
owing to the abuse of the late parliaments, he was nnwillingly 
obliged to do without their services for a time, and he woTild 
consider it presumption for any one to prescribe to him, at any 
time, the calling of that assembly. 

This was generally considered as a declaration that dnring his 
reign no more parliaments were mtended to be called. Tonnage 
and poundage continued to be levied by roj^al authority alone. 

The militia of each county were ordered to be kept in good 
order and sufficient strength, by an order in Council. Compo- 
sitions were openly made with the recusants and Romish re- 
ligion, and formed a part of the revenue. A commission was 
appointed for compounding with such as were possessed of 
crown lands, upon defective titles ; and upon this pretence much 
money was exacted from the people. Knighthoods were sold, 
and money was raised in every conceivable way. The star 
chamber increased and extended its authority, and it was a 
matter of complaint, that it encroached upon the jurisdiction of 
other courts. 

Charles made a journey to Scotland, June 12, 1633, attended 
by his court, in order to hold a parliament there, and to pass 
through the ceremony of his coronation. In the year 1631: 
ship-money was first introduced over the whole kingdom, for 
the purpose of building a navy, the effect of which soon ap- 
peared ; a formidable fleet of sixty sail, the gi-eatest that Eng- 
land had ever known, was equipped, under the Earl of Xorthum- 
berland, who had orders to attack the herring busses of the 
Dutch, who fished in what were called the British seas. The 
Dutch were content to pay £30,000 for a license during this 
year, but denied the claim of England's dominion in the sea 
beyond the Frith's bays and shores. 

In 1637 many Puritans restrained in England sailed for 
America, and laid there the foundation of a government which 
possessed all the civil and religious liberty they found them- 
selves deprived of in their native land. 

Eight ships lying in the Thames, and ready to sail, were de- 



3J.S CHARLES I. [1639. 

tained by order of the Council, and in these were embarked, Sir 
Arthur Hazeh-ig, John Hampden, John Pjm, and Oliver Crom- 
well, who had resolved forever to abandon their native country. 
The king had afterward full leisure to repent this exercise of 
his authority. 

The Scottish people, on Mdiom Charles attempted, at the in- 
stigation of Laud, to force episcopacy upon, arose in arms to 
assert their liberty, and subscribed the National Covenant. 
Charles raised an army of twenty thousand men, under com- 
mand of the Earl of Arundel, and on its arrival at Berwick on 
May 29, 1039, was joined by the king, attended by a splendid 
retinue. 

The two armies were about of equal force, and the leaders of 
the malcontents sent submissive messages to the king, and 
craved an adjustment of their troubles. Charles knew the 
force of the Covenanters was considerable, and their courage 
great, their zeal furious ; and, on the other hand, his army 
was entirely composed of mercenary troops, without disci- 
pline, and fearing a defeat, he concluded a pacification, in 
which it was stipulated that he should withdraw his army ; and 
within eight-and-forty hours the Scots should dismiss their 
forces, and that a Parliament and a General Assembly be im- 
mediately summoned in order to settle all differences. 

As soon as Charles concluded this peace, his want of money 
obliged him to disband his army, and as his soldiers were held 
together solely by mercenary views, it was not possible, without 
ffreat trouble and loss of time, to aii;ain assemble them. 

On August IT, 1G30, the General Assembly met in Edin- 
burgli ; they voted episcopacy unlawful in Scotland, and stig- 
matized the liturgy and canons as popish. The Parliament 
which sat there after the assembly were proceeding to ratify 
the acts of the assembly, when, by the king's instructions, Tra- 
quaire, the Lord High Commissioner, prorogued them. 

Charles, with great difficulty, found means to draw together 
another army, but soon discovered that all his money was gone 
and great debts contracted, and his revenue would be insuffi- 
cient to support them ; and he found that an English Parlia- 
m^ntj formerly so unkind and intractable — and after an inter- 



1640.] CHARLES I. 349 

mission of eleven years, and after his liaving tried so many 
irregular methods — must at last be summoned to aid him in 
his necessities. Parliament was therefore called, and on April 
13, IGJrO, met at Westnnnster ; but as it conmieneed, like the 
last one, first to consider grievances, he dissolved it on May 
5tli, after a sitting of eighteen days, and before it gave any posi- 
tive reply to his demand for supplies. 

Tyranny in church and state was now at its worst. Torture 
was inflicted for the last time in this year. 

The Lord High Commissioner Traquaire had intercepted a 
letter written to the King o-f France by the Scottish malcon- 
tents, which he forwarded to Charles, and he, glad of the op- 
portunity, made this the cause of breaking with the Covenan- 
ters, and was determined this time to subdue them. He raised 
an army of twenty thousand men with great difficulty, and ap- 
pointed the Earl of North und^erland to command them. They 
M'ere met by the Scotch at Newburn-on-Tyne, and utterly de- 
feated. A panic seized the English army ; they fled to Dur- 
ham, and, not yet thinking themselves safe, deserted that town, 
and retreated into Yorkshire, August 28th. 

The Scotch took possession of Newcastle, and, though suffi- 
ciently elated with their victory, preserved great discipline, and 
paid for everything required. They also sent messengers to 
the king, who had arrived at York, expressing their loyalty, duty, 
and sul)mission to his person. Charles was in a very distressed 
condition, the army discouraged and discontented, the treasury 
exhausted, and every expedient for supply tried to the utter- 
most, and, in order to prevent the advance of the Scots, he 
agreed to a treaty at Kipon ; but difficulti-es occurring, it was 
proposed to transfer the negotiations to London, which was 
agreed to by both parties. And having convoked a council of 
the great peers at York, they demanded the calling of a parlia- 
ment to inquire into the state of the realm and treat with the 
Scottish rebels. 

A new parliament was called, and on November 3, 1640, 
assembled the body known as the Long Parliament. Both 
houses were resolute in resistance to despotic power, and the 
first act of the Commons was to impeach both Strafford and 



350 CHARLES I. [1G40-1. 

Laud, who were committed to the Tower. Other members 
of' the ministry, finding the scrutiny of the Commons pointed 
toward them, fled to France. 

Thus, in a few weeks, the House of Commons, seconded by 
the peers, had produced quite a revohition in the government. 
The bishops were next attacked, and orders issued for the re- 
moval and demolishing of all altars, images, and crucifixes. A 
committee was appointed by the Lower Kouse as a court of in- 
quiry into the habits and duties of the clergy. This committee 
continued several years, and exercised an arbitrary power. Tri- 
ennial parliaments were then established, making it obligatory 
on the chancellor to issue writs of election on September 3d of 
every third year. 

Tlie Earl of Strafford was brought to trial March 28, 1641. 
Articles of impeachment, twenty-eight in number, Avere brought 
against him, and after a trial of eighteen days the Commons 
saw it impossible, by legal prosecution, to obtain a sentence 
against h'nn. A bill of attainder was therefore brought into the 
Lower Plouse, charging Strafford with pernicious councils to 
the king in the performance of illegal acts, on which he was 
found guilty and executed. 

Some just and salutary laws were uow passed, some illegal 
practices, which had been usual with the latter English mon- 
archs, were repressed, some grievances redressed, some rights of 
the subject firndy established. 

A bill was also passed demanding that Parliament should not 
be dissolved except with its own consent ; this act was uncon- 
stitutional, but was approved of by the king. 

The Star Chamber and High Commission was abolished, and 
the House voted to consider the question of the militia. 

The arrears of the Scotch army were fully paid and they re- 
turned home, and the English army dispersed into their several 
counties and dismissed. 

The Princess Mary, the king's eldest daughter, AA*as married 
to William Prince of Orange. This was the commencement of 
the connection with that family, which was afterward attended 
with such important consequences to the kingdom. 

A conspiracy was formed by Poger More for expelling the 



1641-2.] CHARLES I. 35X 

English and declaring the independence of his native conntry, 
Ireland, and it was arranged the insnrrection should begin on 
the same day all over the island, and should attack all the English 
settlements ; succors and supplies of arms were expected from 
France and Spain. Kews, which every day arrived from Eng- 
land, of the fury expressed by the Commons against all papists, 
stimulated the conspirators and gave them hopes of the assist- 
ance of all their countrymen. The night before the rising, 
October, 1641, one O'Connally betrayed the conspiracy in Dub- 
lin, which saved the castle and Protestants in that city. But 
in Ulster the conspirators, headed by their priests, commenced a 
universal massacre ; no age, no condition, no sex was spared ; 
death was the slightest punishment inflicted by those rebels. 
All the tortures which wanton cruelty could devise, all the lin- 
gering pains of body could not satisfy their revenge ; even 
women and children emulated the men in the practice of every 
cruelty. The Irish, ingenious in their barbarity, tempted their 
prisoners, by the promise of life, to imbrue their hands in the 
blood of their friends and relations, and then laughingly put 
them to death. Even the cattle which they had seized, and had 
become their own property, they wantonly slaughtered or cov- 
ered with wounds, because they bore the hated English name. 
Amidst all those enormities the sacred name of religion re- 
sounded on every side— not to stop the hands of these murder- 
ers, but to enforce their blows and steel their hearts against the 
English ; heretics, abhorred of God and detestable to all holy men, 
were marked out by the priests for slaughter. From Ulster the 
flames of rebellion spread over the whole of Ireland, but the 
people pretended to act with moderation. They expelled the 
English from their, homes, robbed them of their manors, devas- 
tated their fields, stripped them of their very clothes, and turned 
them out, naked and defenceless, to, meet the severity of the 
season, to starve and die, and it is said over two hundred thou- 
sand suffered. 

Charles, sensible of his inability to subdue the Irish rebels, 
was obliged to have recourse to Parliament. 

On January 2, 1642, the king sent his refusal to the Commons 
to appoint a guard for their security, but promised solemnly, 



352 CHARLES I. • [1642. 

upon liis M'ord as a king, that their security should be his sacred 
care. But next day his Attorn ej^-General appeared at the bar 
of the House of Lords, and in the king's name accused of high 
treason Lord Kinibolton and liv^e members of the Counnons. 

Tliey were charged with an attempt to subv^ert the f undainen- 
tal laws, and to deprive the king of his regal power ; he de- 
manded their arrest, and the next day came to the House in 
person to ai'rest them by armed force, but the five members had 
absented tliem selves by permission of the House. 

The excitement hi Parliament and the city was unparalleled. 
Some of the king's partisans wished to seize the six members 
who M^ere Icnown to Ije in a house in Coleman Street, but he 
chose to demand them from the Common Council, and on Janu- 
ary 8th issued a proclamation for their arrest. 

The unpopularity of his cause made his friends fear for his 
personal safety, and on January lOtli he left the Palace of 
Whitehall for ILimpton Court. 

The following week the accused members were brought back 
with the enthusiasm of a popular triumph, and the rupture be- 
tween the king and Parliauient seemed complete. 

Parliament passed a Militia Act which amounted to an Army 
Act, and Charles sent his queen to Holland, February 16, 1642, 
with the crown jewels, to raise troops against the Parliament. 

On April 23d the king virtually began the w^ar by attempting 
to force an entrance into the city of Hull. The military gov- 
ernor, Hothani, kejyt him out, and his action was approved by 
Parliament. 

The queen, disposing of the crown jewels in Holland, had 
been enabled to purchase a cargo of arms and ammunition, part 
of which had safely arrived with the king. Parliament still 
sent conditions to Charles, but their demand amounted to a 
total abolition of monarchical authority. War on any terms 
was esteemed by the king and his counsellors preferable to so 
ignominious a peace. Collecting some forces, he marched to 
Nottingham on August 25, 1642, and erected his royal standard, 
the open signal of discord and civil war throughout the king- 
dom. 

When two names so sacred to the British Constitution as 



lC«-3.] CHARLES I. 353 

those of king and parliament were placed in opposition, no 
wonder tlie people were divided in their choice. The nobility 
and principal gentry, dreading ntter confusion of rank from the 
fury of the populace, enlisted themselves in defence of their 
monarch. The city of London, on the other hand, and most of 
the great corporations took part with the Parliament. 

The royalist members of Parliament vacated their seats and 
joined the king ; the rest no longer tried to pass acts for the 
king's approval, but passed ordinances. 

On Septendjer 9tli, Parliament published a declaration of the 
causes of the war, and on the 19th the king issued his protesta- 
tion, promising to respect the freedom of Parliament, and de- 
claring his purposes. 

All the different bodies of the parliamentary army were now 
ordered to march and rendezvous at ISTorthampton, and the 
Earl of Essex, who commanded, found them to number fifteen 
thousand men. The king, finding he had no arm}- to cope 
with such a force, thought it prudent to retire to Dei'by, thence 
to Shrewsbury, in order to collect the levies which were making 
in tliose parts. 

On mustering his army, Charles found it numbered ten thou- 
sand men. It was commanded by the Earl of Lindsey, and on 
October 12th he left Shi-ewsbury, determined to give battle as 
soon as possible to the army of the Parliament, which he heai'd 
was continually augmenting, and on the 23d both armies met at 
Edgehill, where a battle was fought, and without decided ad- 
vantage to eithei- side. After fighting all day, Essex was the 
first to withdraw unpursued by the royalists; the king returned 
to his former quarters. Five thousand men are said to have 
been left dead on the field, and the loss of the two armies about 
equal. 

While both armies were kept inactive by the winter sea- 
son, the king and Parliament were employed in real prepara- 
tions for war; in the meantime negotiations were carried on, 
but without success. 

The spring campaign opened on April 15th by the siege of 
Reading, which was invested by Essex and an army of eighteen 
thousand men. It fell on the 27th. Charles was more suc- 
23 



35-i CHARLES I. [1G43. 

cessful in tlie west. Bristol surreiidoreil to Prince Tlupert, 
July 25th; Hampton was killed, and the parliamentary cause 
seemed weak and discouraged, and had the royalists now been 
united and prompt, they might have triumphed and utterly 
overthrown the popular party. 

Parliament now exerted to their utmost their power and 
authority ; they even employed the expedient of impressment, 
so as to raise a formidable army. Fourteen thousand men were 
raised, Mntli which Essex marched to meet the king, and on 
September 29tli both armies met at Xewbury, where a stubborn 
battle was fought, but without anv decided advantaere to either. 
Next mornino; Essex returned to London. The remodellinw; of 
the parliamentary army followed ; Cromwell and Fairfax be- 
came its generals, and a discipline was introduced by the former 
as perfect as that of any modern service, and a spirit of religious 
enthusiasm which equalled or surpassed the loyalty and chiv- 
alry of the cavaliers. The English Parliament had also sent 
commissioners to Edinburgh with powers to treat for a nearer 
union and confederacy with the Scottish nation, and a solemn 
league and covenant was formed, which effaced all former pro- 
testations and vows taken in both kino;doms, and loivj: main- 
tained its credit and authority. 

In this covenant, the subscribers, besides engaging mutually 
to defend one another against all opponents, bound themselves 
to endeavor, without respect of persons, to extirpate popeiy and 
prelacy, superstition, heresy, schism, and profaneness; to main- 
tain the rights and privileges of Parliament, together with the 
king's authority, and to discover and bring to justice all incen- 
diaries and malignants. 

The Scotch had thus o1)tained what they had long been aim- 
ing at — the establishment of Presbyterianism as the dominant 
religion in the United Kingdom, and the extirpation by authority 
of Episcopacy. As the Scotch made the acceptance of Presb}'- 
terianism the condition of their assistance, the Commons made 
no scruple of violating the religious liberty of the nation. 

The Eno-lish Parliament having; first subscribed the covenant 
themselves, ordered it to be received by all who lived under 
their authority. They expelled from their preferments the 



1614-5.] CHARLES I. 355 

wliole body of the Episcopal clergy, and bestowed them on 
their own partisans among the Presbyterians. 

The Scotch, having receiv^ed £100,000, were now prepared to 
carry conviction by the sword, and by the end of the year 1643 
were ready to enter England with an army of twenty thousand 
men, nnder their old general, the Earl of Leven. 

The winter campaign proved unfavorable to the king in all 
quarters. On the opening of summer, Leven and Fairfax 
united their armies and laid siege to York, which was soon 
reduced to extremity, when, on a sudden. Prince Rupert ad- 
vanced to its relief, July 1, 1044, with an army of twenty 
thousand men. The Scotch and parliamentary armies raised 
the siege, and drawing up on Marston Moor, prepared to give 
battle to the royalists, and the following day two battles were 
fought, and Prince Rupert's army was utterly defeated. This 
event was a great blow to the king, and fatal in its conse- 
quences. 

York surrendered a few days afterward. Fairfax, remaining 
in the city, established his government over the wliole county. 
The town of Newcastle was taken by the Earl of Leven on 
October 29th. 

AVhile those events happened in the north, the king's affairs 
in the south, where Ruthven, Earl of Brentford, commanded, 
were conducted with more success. Charles joined this foi-ce, 
and defeated the Parliamentary army at Cropready Bridge, 
under Waller. He then marched westward against Essex, 
whom he shut up in Cornwall, deprived of forage and supplies, 
but reinforcements were sent to his relief under Cromwell and 
Manchester, and the royalist army was defeated on November 
9th, at Newbury. The king retired to Wallingford, thence to 
Oxford, where he was joined by Prince Rupert and the Earl of 
Northampton, with a considerable force of cavalry. 

On June 14, 1645, the decisive battle of Naseby was fought, 
where the royal cause was totally overthrown, and the royal 
army dispersed. After some attempts at negotiations, marked 
by the usual insincerity on both sides, neither party daring to 
trust the other, Charles delivered himself up to the Scotch at 
Newark ; the army afterward moved to Newcastle. The Scot- 



356 CHARLES I, [ir,45-7. 

tisli generals would enter into no confidence with him, l)nt re- 
quired him to issue orders to Oxford and all his other garri- 
sons, commanding their surrender to Pai'liament, and tlie king, 
knowing that their resistance was now of little purpose, complied. 

The Scots concurred witli the English in imposing severe 
conditions on the king, which, notwithstanding his unfortunate 
situation, he refused to accept ; it is certain they did not desire 
his freedom. To carry him a prisoner into Scotland, where 
few forces could be supported to guard him, was a measure of 
inconvenience and danger, and how could such a plan be sup- 
ported in opposition to England ? But, in the end, the Scotch 
commissioners determined to hold tlie king as a pledge foi* the 
arrears they claimed from England, and which they were not 
likely to obtain in any other way. The sum, by their account, 
amounted to £2,000,000, as they had received little pay since 
they had entered England. 

After many discussions betweeu the commissioners of both 
countries, it was agreed that for the sum of £400,000, in lieu 
of all demands, Charles should be delivered up to the Parlia- 
ment, and an everlasting disgrace upon the commissioners con- 
cerned M^as the consequence. 

The king, being delivered up to the English commissioners, 
was conducted, under guard, to Ilohnby, in Northamptonshire, 
January 30, 10-lT, where his confinement was very rigorous. 

Cromwell, who as yet entertained no definite views, was pre- 
pared to play the part afterward assumed by Monk ; yet even 
now, when terms were offered the king by the Independents, 
he refused to concede anything. 

Charles's imprisonment was varied — sometimes in the hands 
of the army, then of the Parliament, lie succeeded in escap- 
ing to the Isle of Wight, where he was treacherously given up 
to Cromwell, who was now master of both army and Parliament. 

The army had been successful in the north, and subdued all 
their enemies, and none remained but the helpless king and the 
Parliament to oppose their violent measures. That body had 
been in treaty with Charles, and had agreed to mutual con- 
cessions, by a vote of the House, and were about to j)roceed 
upon the settlement of the government on the following day. 



1048-0] CHARLES I. 357 

When the Coninions were to meet, Colonel Pride, formerly a 
drayman, suri'onnded the Ilonse with two regiments, and seized 
two hundred members of the Presbyterian party, who were 
favorable to the king, and none were allowed to enter but the 
most furious of the Independents, who did not number over 
sixty members, when they reversed the former proceedings. 

A remonstrance was drawn by a council of general officers, 
at Cromwell's suggestion, and sent to Parliament, demandhig 
the punishment of the king for the blood spilt during the civil 
wars, and requiring a dissolution of Parliament. A connnittee 
was appointed to bring a charge against him, and a vote passed 
declaring him guilty of treason, and a high court of justice 
named. This vote was sent to the House of Peers, Avhich was, 
without one dissenting vote, rejected, and they adjourned their 
House for ten days. 

The Connnons were not to be stopped by so small an obstacle, 
but immediately commenced to constitute the court. It con- 
sisted of one hundred and thirty-three persons, but many refused 
to take part in the proceedings. The judges declining to sit, 
one Bradshaw, a lawyer, was chosen president, and Cook was 
appointed solicitor for the people. The court sat in West- 
minster Hall. 

The solicitor, in the name of the people, represented that 
Charles Stuart, being admitted King of England, and intrusted 
with a limited power, yet nevertheless, from a wicked design 
to erect an unlinnted and tyrannical government, had traitor- 
ously and maliciously levied war against the present Parlia- 
ment, and the people whom they represented, and was there- 
fore impeached as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and a public and 
implacable enemy to the Conmionwealth. 

The king was then called on to answer, and he declined to^ 
submit to the jurisdiction of the court; three times was he 
brought before the court, and as often denied its jurisdiction. 
On the fourth day, the 25tli of January, the judges examined 
some witnesses, by whom it was proved that the king had ap- 
peared in arms against the forces commissioned by Parliament, 
and on the 2Tth they found him guilty of treason, and pro- 
nounced sentence of death afjainst him. 



358 CHARLES I. [1649. 

The Scotch protested against the proceedings ; the Dutch 
interceded in the king's behalf, but all solicitations were fruit- 
less with men whose resolutions were irrevocable. 

Three days were allowed the king between his sentence and 
execution, which he passed in reading and devotional exercises. 
All his family that remained in England were allowed access to 
him. On the 30tli of Jamiary, 1649, in front of the Palace of 
Whitehall, he was beheaded, in the f oi-ty-eighth year of his age, 
and twenty -fourth year of his reign. 

Charles left by his queen, Henrietta, three sons and three 
daughters : Charles, Prince of Wales, Ijorn KioO ; James, Duke 
of York, born 16o3 ; Henry, Duke of Gloucester, born 103-f ; 
Mary, Princess of Oi'ange, born 1031; Elizabeth, born 1035; 
Henrietta, afterward Duchess of Orleans, born 104-4. 

Charles was of tine presence, was of a sweet, but melancholy 
countenance ; his face was regular and handsome, his complex- 
ion good. His body, strong and healthy, was well propor- 
tioned, and, being of middle stature, he was enabled to un- 
dergo great fatigue. He excelled in horsemanship and other 
exercises, and possessed all the essential cpialities which form an 
accomplished prince. His great misfortune was a distrust of 
his own judgment, and a habit of deferring to others of ability 
inferior to his own. This often made him waver and change 
his resolution, not unfrecpiently for the worse, but always with 
the disadvantage of disappointing those who advised him and 
of aj^pearing insincere. 

In a few days the Commons passed votes to abolish the House 
of Peers and the monarchy as useless parts of the government, 
and they ordered a new great seal on which was engraved the 
legend : — " On the first year of Fi-eedom, by God's blessing re- 
stored, 1648."" The forms of all pul)lic business was changed 
from the king's name to that of tlie keepers of' the liberties of 
England. It was declared high treason to proclaim, or any 
otherwise acknowledge Charles Stuart, connnonly called Prince 
of Wales. 

Contemporary Rulers. — France : Louis XIIL, Louis XIV. ; 
Emperors of the AYest : Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III. ; Spain : 
Philip lY. 



1649.] INTERREGNUM. 359 

Interregnum — 1649-1660. 

Eten before the murder of the king, Parliament had shrunk 
into a mere name, but it was the pleasure of Cromwell, the 
leader, to liav^e an instrument to do his work, and make them- 
selv^es odious. At first all was obedience to the men of the 
sword, at their bidding it was treason to give the title of king 
to any one; they ordered the royal statues and arms to be 
thrown down ; made themselves a new great seal ; abolished 
the House of Lords, and the kingly othce ; appointed a council 
of state of forty-one members, with the regccide Bradshaw as 
president ; but the real head was Cromwell. It Avas he, and not 
his nominal masters, who conquered Scotland and Ireland, 
forced the proud courts of France and Spain to receive ambas- 
sadors from men stained with roj-al blood, and humbled the 
powerful Dutch Republic. 

The king's death was received throughout Europe Avith a 
thrill of horror. The Czar of Russia sent the English ambassa- 
dor from his court. The ambassador of France was withdrawn 
from London on the proclamation of the Republic. The Prot- 
estant powers of the continent seemed more anxious than any 
to disavow all connection with the Protestant people, who had 
brought a king to the block. Holland took the lead in acts 
of open hostility to tlie new power as soon as the news of ex- 
ecution reached the Hague. The States General waited on the 
Prince of AVales, who took the title of Charles II., and recog- 
nized him as " majesty,"" while they refused an audience to the 
English envoy. 

Cromwell passed over to Ireland, August, 16-19, with a large 
army. He stormed Di-oglieda and Wexford, putting every de- 
fender to the sword, as well women and priests, in retaliation 
for their own acts. Lie then marched south, where as stout a 
defence was followed by as terrible a massacre as at Wexford, 

Fresh successes at Ross and Kilkenny brought him to Water- 
ford, but the city held out stubbornly ; disease tliinned his army, 
where there was scarce an officer that had not been sick, and 
Cromwell himself was down with illness. At last the tempestu- 
ous weather drove him into winter quarters at Cork. 



36Q INTERREGNUM. [1049-51. 

In the spring he stormed and carried C'h^ninel, and fought 
and overthrew the Irish army, under Ilugli O'Neale, Avhich was 
the hottest tight of the whole campaign. 

The news of the negotiations of Charles at Breda filled the 
Parliament with dismay, for Scotland was raising an army, and 
Fairfax, while willing to defend England against a Scotch m- 
vasion, scrupled to take the lead in an invasion of Scotland. 

The Council recalled Cromwell from Ireland ; he entered 
London amid the shouts of a great multitude, and a hionth 
later, as Charles landed on the shores of Scotland, Cromwell, 
w^ith an army of fifteen thousand men, started to meet him. lie 
crossed the Tweed, but the terror of his Irish massacres hung 
round him, and the country was deserted as he advanced, and 
he was forced to depend for provisions on his fleet Avhich sailed 
along the coast. Leslie, in command of the Scottish army, lay 
in his way to Edinburgh, and Cromwell fell back on Dunbar, 
and on September 3d the battle of that name was fought, and 
the Scotch completely defeated ; ten thousand prisoners were 
taken with all their baggage and guns; three thousand were 
slain, with small loss on the part of the English. 

The effect of the victory of Dunl)ar was at once seen in the 
attitude of the continental powers. Spain hastened to recognize 
the IJepublic, and Holland offered its alliance. 

Humiliation after humiliation had been heaped on Charles 
since he landed on his northern realm. lie had subscribed to 
the covenant ; he had listened to sermons and scoldings from 
the ministers ; he had been called on to sign a declaration that 
acknowledged the tyranny of his father and the idolatry of his 
mother. Hardened and shameless as he was, the young king 
for a moment recoiled. 

He was crowned as Charles II. at Scone, on January 1, 1G51, 
and in July marched on England with twenty thousand men ; but, 
after advancing as far as Worcester, was met by Cromwell with 
an overwhelming force, and after several hours' hard fighting, 
the parliamentarians gained wdiat Cromwell called a " crowning- 
victory," and the hopes of the royalists were for a time crushed. 

Cromwell returned to London, where four commissioners 
were sent to receive him like a king. They conducted him to 



1651-2.] INTERREGNUM. S6i 

Hampton Court, and, in tlie insolence of liis victory, he pre- 
sented fifteen hundred prisoners to his friends as slaves, who 
were sent to work in the mines on the coast of Guinea, where 
they all miserably perished ; others were sent to America and 
the West Indies. 

While the members of Parliament grew rich by rapine, and 
remained in power for that purpose, the people groaned under 
a weight of taxation they had never before experienced. 

A navigation act passed, prohibiting the importation in for- 
eign vessels of any but the products of tlie countries to which 
they belonged, struck a fatal blow at the cari-ying trade from 
which the Dutch drew their wealth, and fresh debates arose 
from the English claim to salutes from all vessels in the channel. 

Two fleets met before Dover, and a sunnnons from Admiral 
Blake to lower the Dutch flag was met by the Dutch admiral, 
Van Tromp, with a broadside. 

The States General attributed the firing to an accident, and 
offered to recall Van Tromp ; but the English demands were 
such that war was inevitable, and on July 8, 1652, war was 
declared against the United Provinces. 

Since the downfall of Spain, Holland was considered the first 
naval power in the world. Innnense efforts were now made by 
that power to strengthen their fleet, and the veteran Van Tromp 
appeared in the channel with a fleet of seventy-five ships of 
war. Blake had but half that number, but he at once accepted 
the challenge, and an unequal fight was carried on imtil night- 
fall, when the English fleet withdrew, shattered, to the Thames. 
Tromp swept the channel in triumph with a broom at his 
mast-head. The strenuous efforts of Blake enabled him again 
to put to sea in a few months after his defeat, when he met 
Van Tromp, and after a running fight of four days, ended 
at last in an English victorj-. Parliament, no longer apprehen- 
sive of domestic war, proposed to reduce the arn)y, M'hich they 
attempted to carry into execution. Cromwell, perceiving that 
they entertained a jealousy of his power, and was resolved to 
bring him to subjection under its authority, determined to pre- 
vent it. He sunnnoned a council of general officers, in which 
it was voted to frame a remonstrance. 



302 INTERREGNUM. [1G53. 

After coinplaiiiing of arrears due to tlie army, tliey desii'ed 
Parliament to reflect how many years it had sat, and that it 
was now full time for it to give place to others. They therefore 
desired it to summon a new parliament, and estahlish that free 
and equal government which it had so long promised the people. 

The Parliament took this remonstrance in ill part, much 
altercation ensued, and they insisted on the retention of power. 
At last, Cromwell being informed that the House had come to 
the resolution not to dissolve, on April 23, 1653, summoned a 
company of soldiers to follow him as far as the door of the 
Commons. He entered and sat down quietly in his place, and 
listened to Yane's passionate arguments. xVt the question, 
" that this bill do pass," he at length rose, and having repeated 
his charges of self-interest, injustice, and delay, said, " Your 
hour is C(»me ; the Lord hath done with you." 

A crowd of meml)ers started to their feet in angry protest. 
" Come, come," replied Cromwell, "■ we have had enough of this ; 
I will put an end to your prating. It is not fit that you should 
sit here any longer ; you should give place to better men ! You 
are no parliament." Thirty musketeers entered at a sign from 
their general, and the flfty mendjers present crowded to the 
door. " Drunkard ! " Cromwell broke out as Wentworth passed 
him ; and Martyn was taunted with a yet coarser name. The 
Speaker refused to quit his seat till Harrison offered " to lend 
him a hand to come down." Cromweil lifted the mace from 
the table. "What shall we do with this bauble?" he said; 
" take it away ! " The door of the House was locked at last, 
and the dispersion of the Parliament was followed a few hours 
after l)y that of its executive committee, the Council of State. 
Cromwell himself ordered them to withdraw. 

The dispersion both of the Parliament and of its executive 
committee left England without a government, and Cromwell, 
as Captain-General of the forces, found himself left solely re- 
sponsible for the maintenance of public order. The military 
being now the sole power, with Cromwell as its head, Lambert 
proposed to ado})C a scheme of government whereby it should be 
represented by the authority of a single person, who should l)e 
known as Protector, and at a subsequent meeting of the council 



1653-4.] INTERREGNUM. 3(]3 

of general officers, on Deceml^er 12, 1G53, Cromwell was elected 
to that office, lie then appointed a Council of State, composed 
of twelve members of his own selection, and in his own name 
smnmoned one hundred and forty persons to meet as a parlia- 
ment, commonly known as the Barebones Parliament. 

After their passing about live months in idle talk, and not 
willing to forward his ambitious views, he got some of them to 
resign and expelled the rest. Three days afterward he was in- 
augurated in Westminster Hall (December 16th) as his Highness 
the Lord Protector, and a council was appointed of twenty-one 
members, wiio were to enjoy the office during life or good be- 
havior. A new constitution was formed, drawn by his creatures, 
which declared that there should be a parliament of four hun- 
dred and sixty members, to sit three years, and a standing army 
of thirty thousand men ; the parliament not to meet until the 
following September ; his highness to perform all the functions 
in the interim, and to enjo}' his office for life, to make peace or 
war, and to treat with foreign states with the assent of his coun- 
cil, and on his death the place was to be su])plied In- the coun- 
cil. Thus the sovereigu authoiity, of Avhicli Parliament had de- 
prived the king, was transferred to the Protector. 

The new parliament met September 3, 1051:. All persons who 
in any way assisted the king — Presbyterians, Episcopalians, or 
Koyalists — were declaimed incapable of serving ; the smaller bor- 
oughs were deprived of their franchise. This was the iii'st 
parliament in our history where members from Scotland and 
Ireland sat side by side with those from England. The iirst 
business of the House was to consider the question of govern- 
ment. They questioned the Protector's authority, and asked for 
information as to what had been done during his nine months 
protectorate. " The great end of your meeting," he said, " is 
healing and settling." Though he had himself done much, 
there was still nmch to be done. Bills were laid before the 
House, and he resented the setting of that business aside foi* 
constitutional questions which, as he held, a divine call had de- 
cided ; but he resented yet more the renewed claim advanced by 
Parliament to the sole power of legislation. He soon after dis- 
solved the House. 



364: INTERREGNUM. [1C55-7. 

The discontent sliown by this parliament encouraged the roy- 
alists to attempt an insurrection, which was soon put down, and 
serv^ed only to strengthen the government. 

Cromwell concluded a treaty with France, October, 1G55, 
which stipulated that neither Charles nor his brother, th'e Duke 
of York, should be suffered to renuiiu in that kingdom. 

lie fitted out two large squadrons. One, under Blake, was 
despatched to the Mediterranean, attacked Algiers, and compelled 
the Dey to restrain his piratical subjects from further violence 
on the English. The other squadron sailed for the West Indies ; 
the attack on St. Domingo was repulsed with loss and disgrace, 
but Jamaica surrendered without a blow. May, 1655. 

Blake died on his return voyage, just as the fleet arrived at 
Plymouth. 

Cromwell, anxious as ever to give a legal basis to his admi: - 
istration, again summoned Parliament, which met September 
17, 1656. In summoning this House he used every art in order 
to influence the elections and fill the House with his own crea- 
tures. The sixty members sent from Scotland and Ireland were 
simply nominees of the government ; Catholics and royalists, 
who had actually fought for the king, were still disqualified 
from voting. It was calculated that of the members returned 
one-half were bound to the g()vernment by ties, of profit or 
place. But Cromwell was still unsatisfied. 

A certificate of the council was required from each member 
before admission to the House, and by this means one-fourth of 
the mendjers returned were excluded. On April 9th, Parlia- 
ment offered Cromwell the crown. After some consideration, 
hearing that a conspiracy was formed in the army to murder 
him should he accept, he declined tne offer. On June 26, 1657, 
he was again inaugurated as Prote^'tor, with royal pomp, at 
Westminster. 

His eldest son, Richard, was now brought to court, intro- 
duced into public business, and recognized as his heir to the 
protectorship. 

From this time Cromwell showed great fear of assassination. 
He doubled his guards and wore armor. All peace of mind 
was now fled ; he felt that the grandeur which he had attained 



165S-0.] INTERREGNUM. 0^5 

bj so much guilt could not insure him happiness. His health 
was now affected by the anxietj of his niiud ; fever attacked 
him, and his physicians saw his end was near. The council was 
alarmed. 

A deputation was sent to know his will with regard to his 
successor. He named his son Richard, and very shortly after- 
ward breathed his last, on September 3, 1658, in the fifty-ninth 
year of his age, 

Richard was thirty-two years of age, a man of little expe- 
rience, indolent, irresolute, and incapable. His brother Henry 
ruled Ireland with popularity, and insured him the obedience 
of that part of the kingdom. General Monk, whose authority 
was well established in Scotland, proclaimed the new Protector. 
The army and the fleet acknowledged his title, and about one 
hundred addresses from the counties and principal cities and cor- 
porations congratulated him on his accession. A new parlia- 
ment was sunin'ioned January 27, 1059, which proceeded to 
examine the humble petition and advice, and, after great oppo- 
sition, it was at length carried. On the other hand, the most 
influential officers of the army were caballing against the Pro- 
tector, and they were joined by the wdiole republican party 
among the soldiers, which was still considerable. 

Richard was prevailed upon to give an unguarded consent 
for calling a general council of officers, who proposed that the 
whole military power should be intrusted to some person in 
whom they might all confide. The Parliament, not less 
alarmed than the Protector, voted that there should be no meet- 
ing or general council of officers except with the Protector's 
consent, or by his orders. This vote brought affairs imme- 
diately to a rupture. 

The officers hastened to Richard and demanded of him the 
dissolution of Parliament. He wanted the resolution to deny, 
or ability to resist, and on April 22d Parliament was dissolved ; 
and though he remained nominally Protector a few weeks longer, 
all his real power was gone. 

The council of officers now resolved on restoring what re- 
mained of the Long Parliament. Its numbers were small, but, 
being men of great ambition, many of them of experience, 



366 INTERREGNUM. [1050-60. 

tliej were resolved not to act ^ subordinate part. They v<)ted 
that all commissions shonld he granted by the Speaker, and l)e 
assigned by him in the name of the llonse. These precautions 
gave great annoyance. 

Encouraged by these dissensions, the royalists determined on 
a rising in several counties, but tlieir plans were betrayed. 
Lambert and the other general officers expelled the Parliament 
October l.'^th, and elected a committee of twenty, whom they 
invested with sovereign authority, under the name of a (-omnut- 
tee of Safety. But, amidst all these gloomy prospects, fortune 
\vas paving the way for the return of the king. 

General Monk, who, tlirough all these changes, liad retained 
his conunand in Scotland, crossed the border with a consider- 
able army, lie kept his own counsel and marched steadily 
forward, professing that his only object was to restore the Par- 
liament. The cry of a " f ree parliauient '' ran like lire through 
the country. Xot only Fairfax, who appeared in arms in York- 
shire, Imt the ships on the Thames and the mob which thi'onged 
the streets of London, caught up the cry. The army, thrown 
into confusion by its own divisions, strove to check the tide of 
feeling by recalling the Commons, and Monk, who lavished pro- 
testations of loyalty to that assembly while he accepted petitions 
for a " free parliament," entered London unopposed. 

From the moment of his entry the restoration of the Stuarts 
became inevitable. 

When the new Parliament met, April 25, 1060, they chose Sir 
Ilarbottle Grimstone as Speaker, and it was found many royal- 
ists were elected. They soon took the management of affairs 
into their own hands ; they recalled the members expelled by 
Cromwell in 1053, and appointed a new coiuicil of state. The 
great dangers they had incurred dm'ing tlie former usurpation, 
together with the extreme caution of Monk, kept every one in 
awe. 

At last the general, having sufficiently sounded their incli- 
nations, gave directions to the president of the council to in- 
form the house that Sir Jolni Granville, a servant of the kin^, 
was now at the door with a letter for the Commons. Granville 
was admitted ; the letter, accompanied with a declaration, was 



1660.] INTERREGNUM. 3^7 

greedily read, and ■without a moijient's delay, a committee was 
appointed to prepare an answer, and both were ordered to be 
published. 

The people, freed from a state of suspense, now changed 
their anxieties into joy, and displayed the greatest exultation. 

The king offered a free pardon to both Houses of Parliament, 
and all who chose to return to their allegiance. Tlie proposal 
was accepted with joy, and on May 8, 1660, Charles II. was 
proclaimed at Whitehall and Temple Bar, and a committee of 
the Lords and Commons was despatched to invite his Majesty 
to take possession of the government. 

The respect of foreign powers soon followed the submission 
of the king's subjects. Spain invited Charles to embark from 
one of her maritime ports in the Low Countries ; France offered 
Calais for the same purpose, and the States General sent a like 
friendly invitation. The king decided to accept the last offer, 
and sailed from the Hague for Dover, where he was met by 
General Monk, whom he cordially embraced. He landed May 
29, 1660, and proceeded immediately to London amidst the joy 
of the people. 

CoxTEMPORAKY RuLERS. — Frauce : Louis XIY. ; Emperors 
of the West : Ferdinand HI., Leopold I. ; Spain : Philip IV. 



3(38 CHARLES II. [1660. 




Charles II.— A. D. 1660-1685. 

Born at St. James's Palace, May 39, 1030. 

Crowned, April 23, 1(501. 

Married Catherine of Braganza, Infanta of Portugal, daughter of John IV. 

No legitimate issue. 
Died at Whitehall, February 6, 168.J. 
Buried at Westminster. 

Charles, second son of Charles I. and liis queen Henrietta, 
daughter of Henry lY., King of France, was born May 29, 
lOoO, the eldest son, Charles James, having died soon after his 
birth. 

At the age of twelve years Charles was appointed by his 
father commander of a troop of horse, which he raised as a 
body-guard at York, and three years after he was sent to serve 
with tlie royal troops in the west with the rank of general. 
After the battle of Xaseby, 1G45, the prince fled to Scilly, and 
afterward to Jersey, where he remained until September, 1646, 
wlien he joined his mother in Paris. In 1660, while residing at 
the Hague, he received the news of the execution of his father, 
and immediately assumed the title of king, and was proclaimed 
in Edinburgh, February 3, 1610, but with little prospect of 
ascending the throne. Leaving Holland to spend some time 
with his mother in Fails, he subsequently left for Jersey, 
whence he sailed for Scotland, where he landed June 23, 1650, 
having first agreed to the conditions imposed by the Presby- 
terians, and having been forced to take the covenant before 
landing. He was proclaimed King of Scotland at Edinburgh, 
July 15, 1650, and was crowned at Scone, January 1, 1651. 

Cromwell having already conquered the greater part of Scot- 



1660.] CHARLES II. 3(59 

land, Cliarles resolved on march ins; sontli. He entered Eng-- 
land on August 6th, and took possession of the city of Carlisle, 
where he was again proclaimed king on August 20th. 

The battle of Worcester, on September 3, when he was de- 
feated bj Cromwell, put an end to this enterprise, and after 
many narrow escapes from capture, he succeeded in embarking 
at Slioreham, Sussex, on October loth, and sailed for Isor- 
mandy, and from thence to Paris. The peace with France in 
1655 forced him to leave that country, from whence he travelled 
to Bruges, and remained there and in Brussels until the news 
of Cromwell's death, in 1658, reached him. In order to be able 
to avail himself of the confusion which arose in England, he 
stationed himself for a time in Calais, but afterward left for 
Spain, and thence to Breda, where he opened negotiations with 
General Moidv. 

Having transmitted to Parliament a document called the 
Declaration of Breda, containing specifications and pledges as 
to his future conduct and principles of government, his restora- 
tion to the throne of England was voted on May 1, 1660, and 
eight days after he was proclaimed king in London. lie left 
the Hague May 23d, and arrived at Dover five days after. 

His journey to London was one continued triumph, and the 
whole of the country through which he passed was decked in 
holiday array. 

So great was the rapture of loyalty with which lie was re- 
ceived that he assured some of his friends he could not see, for 
the life of him, why he had stayed away so long, when ever}^- 
body appeared so charmed that he had at length come back 
again. 

Charles was now thirty years of age. He possessed a vigorous 
constitution, manly figure, and graceful air, and though his fea- 
tures were harsh, his countenance, in the main, was lively and 
engaging ; from the whole tenor of his actions, he seemed wil- 
ling to forget all past animosities, and of uniting every party in 
an affection for their king and country. 

In the formation of his council he appointed the most eminent 
men of the nation without regard to former distinctions, the 
Presbyterians equally with the royalists shared in this honor. 
24 



370 CHARLES II. [166a. 

Tlie Earl of Manchester was appointed Lord Chamberlain, and 
Lord Say, Privy Seal. Two Presbyterian clei-gymen, Oalaniy 
and Baxter, were made chaplains to the king. The choice of 
the council and other officers was the circumstance which chiefly 
gave contentment to the nation and foreshadowed future happi- 
ness and tranquillity, and universal joy diffused itself throughout 
the nation. The melancholy austei'ity of the fanatics fell into 
discredit, together with their principles. 

It required some time before the several departments of state 
could recover their former arrangement, but Parliament soon 
fell into a good understanding with the king, and they treated 
him with the same dutiful regard which had formei'ly been paid 
to his predecessors. All judicial proceedings transacted in the 
name of the Commonwealth or Protector were ratified by a new 
law, and both houses acknowledging the guilt of the former re- 
bellion, gratefully received, in theii* OAvn name and in that of 
all the subjects, his majesty's gracious pardon and indenniity. 
He then issued a proclamation declaring that such of the late 
king's judges as did not yield themselves prisoners within foui"- 
teen days should receive no pardon. Xineteen surrendered 
themselves ; some were taken in their flight, others escaped. 

The act of indemnity passed both houses and received the 
royal assent. Tliose who had an immediate hand in the late 
king's death were there excepted. Even Cromwell, Ireton, Brad- 
shaw, and others now dead, were attainted, and their estates con- 
fiscated. 

The next business of Parliament was the settlement of the 
king's revenue, in which they were liberal ; and having pro- 
ceeded somewhat in the settlement of national affairs, the House 
adjourned. 

During the recess of Parliament the object which principally 
interested the public was the trial and condemnation of the 
regicides. 

Six of the late king's judges, ILirrison, Scot, Carew, Clement, 
Jones, and Scroop, together with Axtel, who had guarded the 
court ; Hacker, who commanded the troops on the day of the 
king's execution ; Coke, the solicitor for the people, and Hugh 
Peters, the fanatical preacher who inflamed the army and im- 



1660-1.] ' CHARLES II. . 371 

pelled tliein to regicide — were tried, condemned, and executed, 
September 18, 1660.- The rest of the king's judges, by great 
lenity, were reprieved, and committed to prison. 

At the same time the Duke of Gloucester, a prince of great 
promise, died in the twentieth year of his age. 

The Princess of Orange, who arrived in England to take part 
in the joy attending the restoration of her family, soon after 
sickened and died. The queen-mother also paid a visit to her 
son, and obtained his consent to the marriage of his sister, the 
Princess Henrietta, with the Duke of Orleans, brother to the 
French king. 

Parliament met November 6th, and after a short session of 
two months, M-ithout transacting any particular business, was 
dissolved by the king in a speech full of gracious expressions. 

James, Duke of York, married Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord 
Clarendon, the king's favorite minister ; she had been previously 
seduced by the duke under a promise of marriage, and Charles, 
in pity for his friend, obliged the duke to marry her. 

The king used great moderation at first in the execution of 
the laws, and the Commons put off the examination of religious 
controversy and left the settlement" of the church to the king 
and to the ancient laws. Xine bishops still lived, and these 
were immediately restored to their sees. All the rejected 
clergy recovered their livings, and the liturgy was again ad- 
mitted into the churches. 

The affairs in Scotland were equal to those in England in re- 
gard to their settlement and compliance with the king, and all 
forts w^ere given up that had been held by Cromwell, and the 
royal authority was again restored. 

A new parliament met on May S, 1661. Not more tlian 
sixty members of the Presbyterian party had obtained seats in 
the Lower Llouse — too small a number to oppose or retard the 
measures of the majority. Monarchy and episcopacy were now 
exalted to as great power and splendor as they had lately suf- 
fered misery and depression. An act was passed for the security 
of the king's person and government. 

The acts declaring England a commouAvealth, the covenant, 
and the appointment of a high court of justice, were ordered 



372 CHARLES II. [16G3. 

to be burned by the common hangman. The bishops, though 
restored to their spiritual authority, were still excluded from 
Parliament by a law passed in the last reign, which was now re- 
pealed, and they were restored to their seats. 

Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter of John 
IV., King of Portugal, May 21, 1GG2, with whom he received, 
as a dower, £400,000, and the fortresses of Tangier in Africa 
and Bombay in the East Indies. Tlie marriage was inauspi- 
cious, as the queen was never able to make herself agreeable to 
him, and they lived unhappily together. lie soon outraged her 
feelings by presenting to her his avowed mistress. The poor 
queen fainted, and blood rushed from her nose. Clarendon at 
last persuaded her to submit to the insult, but her spirit was 
utterly broken. The unblushing licentiousness of the court 
was a scandal to the world, even in that day of reaction against 
Puritan severity. Its excessive extravagance so far exceeded 
the liberal grants made by Parliament for the royal expenses, 
that there was a general wonder where the money was 
obtained. 

An act of uniformity was passed (16G2), in which it was 
enacted that no person shoiild hold preferment in the Church 
of England, or administer the sacrament of the Lord's Supper 
unless he had been episcopally ordained in the form and man- 
ner enjoined by the Book of Common Prayer. 

The Presbyterian ministers were ejected from their livings 
because they would not conform to the act. 

The first really unpopular acts of the king were his declara- 
tion of indulgence to Roman Catholics and the surrender of 
Dunkirk to France for the sum of .£400,000. This fortress 
was won by the valor of the. Cromwell soldiery, and was re- 
garded as a compensation for the loss of Calais. 

Parliament now resolved to single out as victims of their 
severity some of the Scottish leaders in the late rebellion, and 
the Marquis of Argyle and Guthrie, a preacher, were tried for 
treason, found guilty, and on May 27, 10()2, executed. 

The excessive zeal for the episcopacy of Clarendon, and the 
rough cruelty of Claverhouse in Scotland, made this a reign of 
bitter religious persecution. The more moderate Presbyterians, 



1663-6.] CHARLES II. 373 

led by Baxter, were persuaded at first that the king would be 
friendly to them, but were terribly undeceived. 

In June. 1663, Archbishop Juxon died, and was succeeded 
by Sheldon, Bishop of London. This year, for the last time, 
•the clergy granted subsidies to the crown. 

According to a promise made in the declaration of Breda, 
the king intimated to Parliament his desire of granting some 
indulgence to dissenters, but the Connnons were not inclined to 
concede it, and followed up their opposition by an address to 
the king that all popish priests and Jesuits might be banished 
the kingdom. Whether tliej' began to suspect the king of an 
inclination to Romanism, and were even then aware that his 
brother, the Duke of York, had embraced that faith, is un- 
certain. 

In 1664 the Commons presented an address to the king, com- 
plaining of the wrongs offered to the English ti-ade by the 
Dutch, and promising to assist him with their lives and fortunes 
in asserting the rights of his crown against all opposition what- 
ever. 

War was declared against Holland, February 22, 1665, and 
Parliament voted a supply of £2,500,000 to carry on the war. 
The royalists regarded the Dutch with dislike, not only fi-oni 
old grievances, when they had been obliged to seek shelter 
among them and had been denied it, but because that shelter 
was now freely given to the disaffected. 

An English fleet was fitted out, consisting of ninety sail, com- 
manded by the Duke of York and Prince Rupert. Thev met 
the Dutch fleet, of about equal number, under command of 
Admiral Opdam, and a battle was fought in Solebay, off the 
coast of Suffolk, June 3, 1665, where the Dutch were defeated 
with a loss of twenty sliips, captured and suidc. The admirars 
ship having blown up, the remainder of the fleet fled toward 
their own coast. The English lost only one ship. The French 
monarch, becoming alarmed lest the English should become 
masters of the sea and over commerce, determined to support 
the Dutch, and declared Avar against England, January 16, 1666. 
During this year London was almost desolated by the plague, 
ten thousand dying in a Aveek and over one hundred thousand 



374 CHARLES II. [1666-7. 

deatlis during- the year. On July 3d a terrible conflagration 
completed the work of destruction. 

The war with the Dutch continued, and the most determined 
sea-fights ever known were carried on between the fleets of the 
two nations — the Dutch under Yan Tromp and De Kuyter, and 
the English under Lord Albemarle and Prince Rupert. One 
sea engagement, lasting four days, ended, July 25, IGOG, in a 
glorious victory to the English, who now rode incontestable 
masters of the sea, and insulted the Dutch in their own har- 
bors. 

The fruitless nature of the war, together with the plague and 
fire, disposed the English government to make advances for 
peace. Ambassadors were appointed, and everything was set- 
tled except the dispute with regard to the possession of the Isle 
of Polerone in the East Indies ; as the reasons on both sides be- 
gan to multiply it was agreed to transfer the consultation to 
Breda. The English ambassadors desired a suspension of arms 
until the several claims were adjusted, but this was rejected 
by the Dutch. De Witt, who governed the Dutch republic at 
this time, was fully aware that, owing to the want of money in 
England, and, pending the peace, Charles had laid up his fleet 
and discharged his men, and now saw the chance of striking a 
blow which might at once restore to the Dutch the honor lost 
during the war and revenge the injuries received from the Eng- 
lish, lie therefore protracted the negotiations at Breda and 
hastened his naval preparations. 

The Dutch fleet, under De Ruyter, appeared in the Thames, 
and threw the English into the utmost consternation. Slieer- 
ness was soon taken and all the men-of-war lying there de- 
stroyed. Taking advantage of a spring tide and an easteily 
wind the Dutch passed on and bi'oke the chain that had been 
drawn across the Medway, though the passage had been ob- 
structed by sunken vessels. Three ships which guarded the 
chain were destroyed, others M'ere damaged ; they then burned 
the ships at Chatham. Dropping down the Medway they took 
the next tide up the Thames, destroying ships at Woolwich and 
Blackwall ; they then returned without receiving any considera- 
ble damase. 



1667.] CHARLES II. 375 

They next attacked Portsmouth, wliere tliey made a fruitless 
attempt, and met with no better success at Plymouth. 

In the meantime the English ambassadors had been instructed 
to recede from their demands, and the peace of Breda was 
signed, July 21, 1G67, and Charles was extricated from his pres- 
ent difficulties. 

At this time the Chancellor, Lord Clarendon, fell into bad ]-e- 
pute with the nation for many reasons ; among others, the sale 
of Dunkirk was attributed to him. The Catholics knew that 
while he retaiued po\ver their inHuence with the king would be 
useless, and the king himself, disappointed in oue of his intrigues 
with a Mrs. Stuart, through the Chancellor, never forgave him 
his disappointment. Articles of impeachment were drawn up 
against liim ; most of them were known to be false or frivolous. 
Finding that popular feeling was strong against him he left hur- 
riedly for France, wher« he addressed a paper to the House of 
Lords dejining his position and his excuse for his past conduct. 
The Lords transmitted this paper to the Commons under the name 
of a lihel, and by a vote of both houses it was ordered to be burned. 

The Parliament next exercised their power by passing a bill 
of banishment against him. He lived in France until his death, 
six years after, employing his time for that period in writing 
the kistory of the civil wars, for which he had collected mate- 
rial. He was followed, after a short interval, by the ministry 
known as the Cabal, and Sir William Temple effected the triple 
alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, January, 160S; 
When the king announced it to Pai'liament it gave great satis- 
faction to the nation, l)eing the best public act since the restora- 
tion. Unhappily at the same time Charles was negotiating a 
clandestine treaty with Louis XIY., which was to make England 
entirely subservient to the French king, and when Sir William 
Temple returned home in the autumn of 1670 he was coldly re- 
ceived by the ministers and the king, and he retired into private 
life. Louis, knowing the great influence of the Duchess of Or- 
leans over her brother Chai'les, employed her to use her good 
offices in order to detach him from the triple alliance, which he 
knew if adliered to would add insurmountable barriers to his 
ambition. 



376 CHARLES n. [1670-3. 

The Duchess of Orleans arrived at Dover, and on May 22, 
1670, a secret treaty was entered into whereby Charles agreed 
that, at a convenient time, he would make a public profession of 
the lioman Catholic religion, and also would assist'Louis against 
Holland, England supplying a small land force, but bearing the 
chief burden of the contest at sea, on condition of an annual 
subsidy of three million francs. In the event of the death of 
the King of Spain without a son, Charles promised to support 
France in her claims upon Flanders. 

In order to tie him still closer to the French interest Louis 
resolved to bind him by the' ties of pleasure, and sent him a 
French mistress. Mile. Querouaille, by whose means he hoped to 
govern him. Charles carried her to London, and soon after- 
ward created her Duchess of Portsmouth, and she became ances- 
tress of the house of Richmond. 

A short time after this tlie Duchess of Orleans sickened and 
died in the thirty-ninth year of lier age. 

To supply money to the king and ministry the treasury was 
closed, and the regular payment of over £1,000,000, then due, 
was suspended by proclamation for one year. A financial panic 
and great distress ensued. It was decided to capture a fleet of 
Dutch ships, but the convoy beat off the English fleet sent 
against them. On March IT, 1672, war was declared agginst 
Llollarid, and a declaration was issued by France at the same 
time. The pretext for war was trifling. 

The first important battle in Southwold Bay, May 2Stb, gave 
little advantage to either side. The French in the meantime 
were victorious on land, but the young Prince of Orange proved 
the deliverer of his country. The war dragged on for two 
years when a separate J^eace was made between England and 
Holland, 1674, but the war on the part of France continued. 

The king's necessities obliged him to call a parliament on 
October 20, 1673, which he feared to meet from the general 
discontent existing, but in his speech he addressed them with all 
the appearance of cordiality and confidence. He stated he \\-ould 
have assembled them sooner, but he was desirous of giving them 
full time to attend to their private affairs as well as to give his 
people a respite from taxation. 



lGT5-r.] CHARLES II. 377 

Parliament petitioned against the proposed marriage of the 
Duke of York and the Princess of Modena, but Charles replied 
that the alliance was already completed. They also remonstrated 
against the alliance with France and the king's evil councillors, 
but with no effect. 

Meantime Charles made a declaration of indulgence, suspend- 
ing all penal laws in religious matters, in consequence of which 
many prisoners were released, among others John Bunyan, who 
had been in jail tweh^e years ; but the declaration was extremely 
unpopular. 

As the dissenters had seconded the efforts of the Connnons 
against the king's declaration of indulgence, and seemed resolute 
to accept no toleration in an illegal manner, they ac(juired favor 
with the Parliament, and a project was formed to unite the 
whole Protestant interest against the common enemy, popery, 
which now appeared formidable. 

By the advice of the King of France, and to restrain his dis- 
contented subjects, Charles gathered a large army at Blackheath. 
Many of the officers were of the Roman Catholic religion, which 
caused great dissatisfaction. 

Considerable changes took place about this time in the Eng- 
lish ministry, the Earl of Danby being the chief director of 
public affairs. Parliament was summoned in April, 1075, as 
the king desired supplies, not only for the building of ships, but 
for paying off the indebtedness of the nation ; he even confessed 
that he had not been as frugal as he might have been, and 
promised to be more so for the future ; but the house not vot- 
ing the required assistance, he prorogued them until November. 

William, Prince of Orange^ visited England, and on Novem- 
ber -i, IGTT, married the Princess Mary, elder daughter of 
James, Duke of York, which gave great satisfaction to the na- 
tion, but made no change in the policy of the king. It gave 
great offence to Louis, who, accustomed to -govern everythhig in 
the English court, now found so inq^ortant a step taken, not 
only M'ithout his consent, but without his knowledge. Parlia- 
ment assembled in November, and again declined to vote sup- 
plies unless the king agreed to enter into an alliance with Hol- 
land aiijainst France. 



378 CHARLES II. [16T7-S. 

lie stood upon lils prerogative, and refused to be dictated to 
in matters of peace or war, or permit the Commons to prescribe 
what alliances he should make, lie therefore again prorogued 
Parliament, and it was done for no other cause than his atone- 
ment to Louis, and for this service, it is said, Charles received 
five hundred thousand crowns from that monarch, and they 
both agreed and stipulated not to make any treaties unaccept- 
able to each other. Charles also accepted a pension with the 
understanding that he would prorogue or dissolve any parlia- 
inent which should attempt to force any such treaty upon him, 
or against the interest of France. 

Meanwhile the Avar continued on the continent, the Prince of 
Orange, supported by the Emperor of the West, cou tinned man- 
fully to struggle against Louis. The following year (1GT8) peace 
was made between France and Holland, the French obtaining 
considerable territory at the expense of Spain. 

There was great discontent throughout the land at the con- 
version of the Duke of York to the Church of Home, since his 
marriage to a Iloman Catholic princess. 

Ever since the fatal league with France the nation entertained 
violent jealousies of the court. Some mysterious design was still 
suspected in every enterprise and profession. Arbitrary power 
and popery were apprehended as the intention of all projects ; 
each breath, or rumor made the people start with anxiety ; their 
enemies, tliey thought, were in their very bosom, and had got- 
ten possession of their sovereign's confidence. 

While in this timorous disposition, the cry of a 2>^ot suddenly 
struck their ears. They were M^akened from their slumber, atid, 
like men afrighted in the dark, took every figure for a spectre. 
The terror of each man became the source of terror to another ; 
and a universal panic being diffused, reason, argument, common 
sense, and common Inimanity lost all influence over them. From 
this disposition of men's minds we are to account for the prog- 
ress of the popish plot, and the credit given to it; an event 
which would otherwise appear prodigious and altogether inex- 
plicable. 

On xVugust 12, 16TS, one lvirl)y, a chemist, accosted the king 
as he was walking in the park. " Sire," said he, '' keep within 



1678.] CHARLES II. 379 

the company ; your enemies have a design upon your life, and 
you may be shot in this veiy walk." Being asked the reason 
of this strange speech, he said that two ipen, called Grove and 
Pickering, had engaged to shoot the king, and Sir George 
Wakeman, the queen's physician, to poison liini. This hitelli- 
gence, he added, had been comnnmicated to him by Dr. Tonge, 
wliom, if permitted, he would introduce to his majesty. 

Tonge was Rector of St. MichaePs, Wood Street, a man ac- 
tive, restless, full of projects, void of understanding. He brought 
papers to the king which contained information of a plot, and 
were collected into forty-three articles. 

The king gave no credit to the story ; but tlie Duke of York, 
hearing that priests and Jesuits, and even his own confessor, 
had been. accused, was desirous that a thorough inquiry should 
be made by the council into the pretended conspiracy. 

Kirby and Tonge were inquired after, and were now found 
to be living in close connection with Titus Gates, the person 
who was said to have conveyed the first intelligence to Touge. 
Gates was a man of infamous character ; lie had been originally 
an Anabaptist, had become a clergyman of the established 
church at the restoration, and subsequently went abroad, pre- 
tending to be a convert to Romanism. 

The main articles of the wonderful conspiracy were that the 
Pope had delegated the sovereignty of Great Britain to the 
Jesuits, who had proceeded to name a government and fill up 
the dignities of the chm-ch ; that the king, who they named the 
" Black Bastard," was to be put to death as a hei-etic ; that Pere 
la Chaise, the celebrated confessor of Louis XIY., had remitted 
£10,000 to London, as a reward for the king's assassiiuition, and 
other foreign ecclesiastics had offered further sums ; that Lon- 
don was to be fired in several places by means of fire-balls, which 
they called Tewkesbury mustard-pills. The Protestants were to 
be massacred all over the kingdom ; the crown was to be offered 
to the Duke of York on condition of his receiving it as a gift 
from the Pope and utterly extirpating the Protestant religion. 
If he refused these conditions, he himself was immediately to 
be poisoned or assassinated. Gates, when examined before the 
council, betrayed his impostures in the grossest manner. 



3S0 CHARLES IL [167S. 

Danbv, wlio stood in opposition to tlie French and Catholic 
interest at court, M^as willing to encourage every story which 
might serve to discredit that party. 

J^y liis suggestion a warrant Avas signed for arresting Cole- 
man, who had been secretary to the late Duchess of York, and 
whom Oates had implicated in his evidence. 

Coleman's papers were seized, among which were copies of 
letters to Pere la Chaise and other eminent foreign Catholics. 
These betrayed a scheme for the conversion of the nation to 
popery ; but instead, of the king being murdered, he was to 
have l)ecn bribed by the King of France, and the design was 
altogether different from Oates's pretended discovery. Yet his 
plot and Coleman's were universally confounded together, and 
the evidence of the latter being unquestionable, the belief of 
the former, aided hy the passions and hatred of the people, 
took possession of the whole nation. The nnn'der of a magis- 
trate named Godfrey completed the general delusion. 

When Parliament met, October 21, 10 78, Danby, who hated 
the Catholics and courted popularity, opened the matter in the 
House of Peers, and the cry of the plot was immediately echoed 
from one house to the other. The authority of Parliament 
gave sanction to that fury with which the people were already 
agitated. A solemn fast was appointed, addresses were voted for 
the removal of popish recusants fi'oni London, and for appoint- 
ing the train-bands of London and A\^estminster to be in readiness. 

The Catholic Lords — Powys, Stafford, Arundel, Petre, and 
Bellasis — were committed to the Tower, and were soon after 
impeached for high treason ; and both Houses, after hearing 
Gates's evidence, voted that there had been, " and still is a 
damnable and hellish plot." Oates, though an infamous vil- 
lain, was by every one applauded, and called the saviour of the 
nation ; was recommended by Parliament to the king, and re- 
ceived a pension of ,£1,200 a year. It was not long before this 
bountiful encouragement brought out other witnesses, which 
implicated Lords Carrington, Brudenel, and other eminent per- 
sons, wlio were committed to custody. 

A bill for a parliamentary test passed the Commons without 
nuich opposition, but, in the House of Peers, the Duke of York 



1678-9.] CHARLES II. 33]^ 

moved that an exception miglit be made in liis favor. After 
an earnest address, tlie bill was carried in his favor by two votes. 

By this bill, no peer or member of the House of Commons 
could sit or vote without making a declaration repudiating the 
doctrine of transubstantiation, the adoration of the Virgin, and 
the sacritice of the mass. Thus all Roman Catholics were ex- 
cluded from both Houses of Parliament until the repeal of tiiis 
act in the reign of George TV. 

Encouraged by this general fury, Gates and Bedloe were 
now so audacious as to accuse the queen herself of entering into 
the design against the life of her husband. The Commons 
gave countenance to this accusation, but the Lords would not 
join them in the address to the king on the subject. Charles 
had the generosity to protect his injured consort. " They 
.think," said he, " I have a mind to a new wife ; but I will not 
see an innocent woman abused." 

Montague, the king's ambassador at Paris, without asking the 
king's leave, suddenly came over to England. Charles, suspect- 
ing his intention, ordered his papers to be seized, but Mon- 
tague had taken care to secrete two papers, which he laid before 
the House of Commons. 

Gne was a letter written by Earl Danby, the treasurer, during 
the negotiations at ]S^imeguen. Montague was there directed 
to make a demand of money from France, or, in other words, 
the king was willing secretly to sell his good offices to Louis, 
contrary to the general interests of the confederates, and even to 
those of his own kingdom. The Commons were inflamed W'ith 
this intelligence against Danby, and immediately voted an im- 
peachment of high treason against him. 

The House of Peers plainly saw that Danby's crime could 
not subject him to the penalties of high treason, and refused to 
commit him. The Commons insisted on their demand, and a 
great contest w^as likely to arise, when the king prorogued and 
dissolved Parliament, January 24, 1679. Thus came to an 
end the Parliament which had been in session during the whole 
of this reign, and consisted almost entirely of royalists, wlio were 
disposed to support the crown by all the liberality which the 
habits of that age would permit. 



382 CHARLES II. • [1679. 

During the sitting of Parliament, and after its prorogation 
and dissolution, the trials of the pretended criminals were car- 
ried on, and the courts of judicature, places which, if possible, 
ought to be kept more pure from injustice than national assem- 
blies themselves, were strongly infected with the same party 
rage and bigoted prejudices. Coleman was first brought to 
trial^, was condemned, and executed ; the same fate attended 
Grove, Pickering, and others. To be a Jesuit, or even a 
Catholic, was of itself a sufficient proof of guilt. 

As the army could neither be kept up nor disljanded without 
money, the king found himself obliged to summon a ne\V par- 
liament. 

The popish plot had a great influence upon the elections, and, 
in spite of the exertions of the government, all the zealots of 
the former Parliament were rechosen ; new ones were added, 
and it was apprehended that the new representatives would, if 
possible, exceed the old in their refractory opposition to the 
court and furious persecution of the Catholics. The king was 
alarmed when he saw so dreadful a tempest arise from such 
small and unaccountable beginnings. In order to gratify and 
appease his people and Parliament, he desn-ed the Duke of 
York to leave the country, that no further suspicion might re- 
main of the influence of popish counsels. 

The duke complied, and retired to Brussels, but first required 
an order signed by the king, lest his absenting himself should 
be interpreted as a proof of fear or of guilt. 

He also desired that his brother should satisfy him, as well as 
the public, by a declaration of the illegitimacy of the Duke of 
Monmouth. 

The new parliament met on March G, 1070. The king de- 
sired that Sir Thomas Moore be elected speaker, but the House, 
by a unanimous vote, appointed Seymore, speaker of the late 
Parliament. On his being presented to the king for approba- 
tion, he was rejected, and the Commons ordered to proceed to a 
new choice. A great contest ensued, till, by way oJ^.a compro- 
mise, it was agreed to set aside both candidates, and Gregory, a 
lawyer, was chosen, and the election was ratified by the king. 
It has ever since been understood that the election of Speaker 



1679.] CHARLES II. 3S3 

lies in the House, but tliat the king retains the power of re- 
jecting any person disagreeable to him. The injpeaehment of 
Danbj was revived. The king had beforehand taken the pre- 
caution to grant him a pardon, and, in order to screen the chan- 
cellor from all attacks by the Commons, he had taken the Great 
Seal into his own hands, and had himself affixed it to the parch- 
ment. The Commons denied the power of the crown with 
regard to impeachment, and the Peers ordered Danby to be 
taken into custody. He absconded, but a bill having passed for 
his attainder in default of his appearance, he surrendered, and 
was iiinnediately committed to the Tower. 

In order to allay the jealousy displayed by the Parliament 
and people, the king, by advice of Sir William Temple, laid 
the plan of a new Privy Council, without whose advice he 
declared himself determined for the future to take no measure 
of importance. This council was to consist of thirty persons ; 
fifteen of the chief officers of the crown were to be continued, 
and the other half were to be composed either of men of 
character detached from the court, or of those who possessed 
the greatest influence in both Houses. The Earl of Essex was 
appointed Treasurer, in place of Danby ; the Earl of Sunder- 
land was made Secretary of State ; Yisconnt Halifax was ad- 
mitted to a seat, and the Earl of Shaftesbury was made Presi- 
dent of the Council. 

By his advice the celebrated exclusion bill was brought into 
Parliament, the object of which was to exclude the Duke of 
York from the succession to the throne. It was carried by a 
majority of seventy-nine votes in the Commons, but its further 
progress was stopped by the dissolution of Parliament, May 
27th. Before its dissolution the king had, though reluctantly, 
given his consent to the habeas corpus act, for the enactment 
of which this Parliament is entitled to the gratitude of pos- 
terity. 

During the recess of Parliament there w^as no interruption 
to the prosecution of the Catholics accused of the plot. About 
the same time serious disturbances occurred in Scotland. Lau- 
derdale had ruled that country with great severity, and an inci- 
dent at last happened which brought on an insurrection. 



3S-1: CHARLES II. [1679. 

The Covenanters were much enraged against the primate, 
Sharpe, whom thej considered as an apostate from their prin- 
ciples, and whom they experienced to be an unrelenting perse- 
cutor of all those who dissented from the established worship, 

A body of them falling in with him by accident on the road 
near St. Andrew's, dragged him from his coach, tore him from 
the arms of his daughter, and left him dead on the spot, when 
they immediately dispersed. This atrocious action served the 
ministry as a pretence for a more violent persecution. The 
officers quartered in the west received strict orders to find out 
aud disperse all conventicles, and for that reason the Covenant- 
ers, instead of meeting in small bodies, were obliged to cele- 
brate their worship in numerous assemblies, and to bring arms 
for their security. 

Graham, of (vlaverhouse, having attacked a large conventicle 
at Druniclog, was repulsed with a loss of thirty men. The 
Covenanters, finding that they were unwarily involved in such 
deep guilt, pushed on to Glasgow, made themselves masters of 
that city, dispossessed the established clergy, and issued procla- 
mations, in which they declai'ed that they fought against the 
king's supremacy, against popery and prelacy, and against a 
popish successor. But though they succeeded in raising an 
army of eight thousand men, they were soon dispersed by the 
Duke of Monmouth, whom the king had sent against them, at 
the battle of Both well Bridge, June 22, 1679. 

In consecpience of an illness of the king, the Duke of York 
returned to England, and shortly afterward M^ent down to Scot- 
land as Lord High Commissioner, where he was guilty of the 
most atrocious cruelties upon the Covenanters. He sometimes 
assisted in their torture, and looked on with tranquillity, as if 
he were witnessing some curious experiment. 

The king opened Parliament, October 21, 1680, with a speech 
contahiing many mollifying expressions ; but the Commons dis- 
played the most violent and refractory disposition. Great num- 
bers of the abhorrers from all parts of England were seized by 
their order ; and they renewed the vote of the former Parlia- 
ment, which affirmed the reality of the liorrid popish plot. The 
whole tribe of informers were applauded and rewarded ; and 



1680-1.] CHARLES II. 3S5 

their testimony, however frivolous oi- absurd, met with a favor- 
able reception. 

The exclusion bill was again brought before the House of 
Commons, the debates were carried on with gi-eat violence on 
both sides ; the bill passed by a large majority, but was lost in 
the House of Lords, at which the Commons showed much ill- 
humor at their disappointment. 

The impeachment of the Catholic lords in the Tower was re- 
vived ; Lord Stafford was made the first victim, and after a trial 
of six days, was found guilty of treason, and soon after executed, 
December 29, 1680. His was the last blood shed on account of 
the popish plot. 

As the violence of the Commons still continued, the king 
prorogued and dissolved Parliament, January 10, 1081. 

A new parliament was summoned, and in order to remove it 
from the influence of the factious citizens, it was required to 
meet at Oxford on March 21st. The leaders of the exclusionists 
came attended not only by their servants, but by numerous 
bands of their partisans, and the whole assembly bore the ap- 
pearance of a tumultuous Polish diet more than of a regular 
English Parliament. 

The Commons were not overawed by the magisterial air of 
the king's speech, who addressed them in a more authoritative 
manner than usual. The House consisted almost entirely of the 
same members, and chose the same Speaker. They instantly 
fell into the same measures, the impeachment of Danby, the 
inquiry into the popish plot, and the bill of exclusion. So 
violent were they, on this last article, that, though one of the 
king's ministers proposed that the Duke of York should be 
banished, during life, five hundred miles from England, and 
that on the king's demise, the next heir should be constituted 
regent with regal power, even this expedient, M'hicli left the 
duke only the bare title of king, could not obtain the attention 
of the House ; no method, but entirely excluding the duke, 
would give satisfaction. 

As there was no hope of a compromise, Charles again dis- 
solved Parliament after a session of only seven days. 

In March, 1682, the Earl of Argyle was condenmed in Scot- 
25 



3S6 CHARLES II. [1682-5. 

land of liigli treason, at the instance of the Duke of York, for 
refusing to take an absurd and contradictory test without a 
qualification. He escaped from prison, and succeeded in reach- 
ing Holland ; but his estate was confiscated, and his arms re- 
versed and torn. 

In the following year the Duke of York paid a visit to Eng- 
land. His infiuence was great at coiirt ; though neither so 
much beloved or esteemed as the king, he M'as more dreaded, 
and thence an attendance more exact, as well as a submission 
more obsequious, was paid to him. 

In March, 1083, the discovery of the Uye-house plot — to 
murder the king as he journeyed from Xewmarket — was dis- 
covered, which caused the arrest of a number of eminent Whig 
leaders upon suspicion. There appears to liave been a real plot 
among some obscure persons, but the complicity of the leading 
Whigs was not believed even by the royalists at the time. Yet 
Lord William Hussell was belieaded, July 21st, Algernon Sidney, 
December 7th, and Sir Thomas Armstrong the following year. 

The Duke of York Avas noM'. closely associated with the king, 
and openly succeeded to the chief administration of public affairs. 

The king endeavored to increase his popularity by every art; 
and knowing that the suspicion of popery was of all others the 
most dangerous, he judged it proper to nuirry his niece, the 
Lady Anne, daughter of the Duke of York, to Prince George, 
brother of the King of Demnark. 

Lord Halifax suggested the calling of a parliament early in 
the year 1G85, and opposed a further alliance with France. 
While the discussion was g<:>ing on ("harles was struck with apo- 
plexy. When it Avas plain that he was dying, the Duchess of 
Portsmouth told Barillon, the French ambassador, that Charles 
was really a Roman Catholic and was dying outside the pale of 
his church ; Barillon told the Duke of York, who, conferring 
with his brother, at his desire brought him a priest, to whom 
Charles confessed, received the sacrament with the other rites 
of the Roman Catholic Church, dying in that faith on February 
6, 1685, at the palace of St. James, in the fifty-fourth year of 
his age, and twenty-fifth of his reign. He left no legitimate 
issue, but many children by his several mistresses. 



1685.] " JAMES II. 3S7 

Charles liad good natural abilities and an amiable disposition. 
His early education and misfortunes quickened his wit, but left 
liim careless of dutj, incapable of self-denial, and sceptical of 
all virtue. He knew the worthlessness of his favorites, but was 
their slave, rather than their dupe. He was lavish of money, 
but not generously so, giving to those who pressed him hardest. 
His political course was not from motives of principle or convic- 
tion, as his fathers had been, but he wished to be a king after 
the French fashion, unhampered by want of money or constitu- 
tional obstacles in the pursuit of his personal wishes and plea- 
sures. He Avas devoid of revenge as well as gratitude, and 
treated friends and enemies with the same indolent selfishness ; 
his affability, however, made him to some extent popular, in spite 
of his gross defects of character, and disgraceful misgovernment. 

He was succeeded by his brother, James, Duke of York. 

Contemporary Hulers. — France : Louis XIV. ; Emperor of 
the West : Leopold I. ; Spain : Charles 11. 

James II.— A.D. 1685-1688. 

Bom at St. James's Palace, October 15, 1633, 

Crowned April 23, 1685. 

Married, 1. Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, Issue : 

Charles, Duke of Cambridge. 

James, Duke of Cambridge. 

Charles, Duke of KendaL 

Edgar, Duke of Cambridge. 

Mary, married William, Prince of Orange, and ascended the throne, 

Anne, who succeeded William III, 

Henrietta. 

Catherine. 

Married, 2. Maria, daughter of the Duke of Modena. Issue : 

Charles, Duke of Cambridge. 

James Francis, Duke of Cornwall. 

Catherine, 

Isabel. 

Elizabeth. 

Charlotte. 

Louisa. 

James, second surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta 
Maria, his queen, was born at the palace of St. James, October 
15, 1633. 



388 JAMES II. [1685. 

lie was called Duke of York immediately after his Lirtli, but 
not Ly patent until 1643. lie was nine years of age when the 
civil war broke out, and was present at the battle of Edgehill, 
where he came near losing his life ; he was also at the siege of 
Bristol. 

AYhen Oxford was captured -James became a prisoner at Fair- 
fax. At a ceremonious visit of the chiefs of the Parliaiuenta- 
I'ian army, Cromwell was the only man who bent his knee to 
liim. The prince was well treated, and allowed frequent inter- 
views with his father, living most of the time with his brother 
Gloucester and sister Elizabeth at St. James's Palace, under the 
guardianship of Xorthund)erland. 

lie escaped in 16-18 and fled to the Xetherlands, whence, after 
a residence in Flanders, he weut to Paris in 1619 ; the same 
year he accompanied his brother Charles to the island of Jersey, 
residing there four months. 

After the triumph of the enemies of his house, in 16,j1, he 
entered the French service and distinguished himself under 
Turenne. When, in 1655, the relations between England and 
France became friendlj' he was forced to leave, and he entered 
the Spanish army, where he fought against the English and 
French, and was treated with great consideration by the Span- 
iards. 

lie returned to England in June, 1660, after the restoration 
of his family, and on September 3d following married Anne 
Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. She died in the 
year 1671, leaving two daughters, Mary and Anne, both of 
whom succeeded to the throne. 

He married in the year 1673 Maria Beatrice Eleanor, a prin- 
cess of the house of D'Este of Modena, his junior by twenty- 
five years, lie had become a Roman Catholic while in exile, 
but did not avow it until 1673. He distinguished himself in 
the wars with Holland and commanded the British fleet. The 
passage of the test act in 1673 obliged him to relinquish all his 
appointments, and he incurred great danger, and an effort was 
made to exclude him from the succession. 

James retired to Brussels in 1679, but returned in the year 
1682, when the king found himself master of the country, and 



10S5.] JAMES II. 389 

James was given a post in the administration of the government. 
He was shortly afterward sent to Scotland to settle the govern- 
ment of that country, and chose to take his passage by sea. 
The ship being wrecked the duke escaped in a barge, and his 
brother-in-law, Hyde, and several of the nobility were lost, 
althougli James took care to save his dogs and the priests at- 
tache'd to his suite. It is asserted that some who swam to the 
barge were thrust away and drowned, although there was room 
for them on board. 

His adiiiinistration was a short one in Scotland, leaving his 
authority in the hands of the Earl of Aberdeen. It is asserted 
he acted with great cruelty to the Covenanters, and sometimes 
assisted at the torture of criminals. 

On his return to court he had great influence, a I'eaction liav- 
»ing taken place in the government, and he upheld all the severe 
measures by which the Tory party sought to exterminate the 
Whigs. 

The first act on James ascending the throne, on the death of 
his brother, Charles II., February 6, 1685, was to assemble the 
Privy Council, and he there promised to maintain the estab- 
lished government, both in church and state ; and he declared 
that as he had heretofore ventured his life in defence of the 
nation, he would still go as far as any man in maintaining all 
its just rights and principles. This statement was received 
with great applause by the council, and reiterated by the whole 
country. 

But he soon showed by the first exercise of his authority that 
lie either was not sincere in his professions of attachment to the 
laws, or that he entertained so high an idea of his own legal 
power that feven his utmost sincerity would tend very little to 
secure the liberties of the people. 

All the customs and the greater part of the excise had been 
settled by Parliament on the late king during life, and conse- 
quently the grant was now expired ; nor had the snccessor any 
right to levy these branches of revenue. But James issued a 
proclamation ordering the customs and excise to be paid as be- 
fore, and this exercise of power he would not deign to qualify 
by the least act or even appearance of concession. 



390 JAMES II. [1685. 

The king likewise went openlj, and with all the ensigns of 
his dignity, to mass, an illegal meeting, and bj this assurance 
he displayed at once his arl)itrary disposition and the bigotry of 
his principles — the two characteristics of his reign, and the bane 
of liis administration. He even sent Caryl as his agent to Rome, 
in order to make submissions to the Pope, and to pave the May 
for the readmission of England into the bosom of the Koman 
Catholic Church. 

The Pope, Innocent XI., prudently advised the king not to 
be too precipitate in his measures, nor rashly attempt wdiat 
greater experience might convince him was inipi-acticable. 

James gave hopes, on his accession, that he might hold the 
balance of power more steadily than his predecessor, and that 
France, instead of rendering England subser\'ient to her ambi- 
tious projects, would now meet with strong opposition from 
that kingdom. But these expectations were not realized, as 
James found it to be to his interest to ally himself with the 
French king, who, by his power and zeal, seemed alone able to 
assist him in his project for promoting the Catholic religion in 
England. 

Notwithstanding his prejudices, all the chief offices of the 
crown still remained in the hands of the Protestants. The 
Earl of Ilochester was Treasurer ; his brother, the- Earl of 
Clarendon, Chamberlain ; Lord Sunderland, Secretary of State ; 
and the Marquis of Halifax, President of the Council. This 
last nobleman had stood in opposition to James during the last 
reign. On all occasions the king openly declared he would re- 
tain no minister who did not pay immediate obedience to his 
connnands. 

The queen had great influence over him — a woman of high 
spirit, w'ho had been popular before attaining this high dignity, 
and was now entirely governed by the Jesuits, and as these 
were also the king's favorites, all public measures originated 
with them, and bore evident marks of tlieir ignorance in gov- 
ernment and of the violence of their religious zeal. 

The king had another attachment not very consistent with 
regard for his queen, or devotion to his priests, in the person of 
Mrs. Sedley, whom he soon after created Countess of Dorches- 



1685] JAMES II. 391 

ter. Slie expected to govern him, as the Duchess of Ports- 
mouth had I'uled his hrotlier, but through the influence of the 
priests she was removed from court. 

On April 23, 1685, James and his queen were crowned at 
"VYestminster Abbey by the Archbishop of Canterburj^ The 
communion and a few minor ceremonies were omitted. 

Though the king, queen, and priests had little inclination for 
the meeting of Parliament, the king found it absolutely neces- 
sary to sunnnon that assembly. The low condition to which 
the Whigs had fallen durino; the last years of Charles's reiffn, 
the odium under wdiich they labored on account of the Rye- 
liouse plot, made that party meet with little success at the gen- 
eral elections. The new^ House of Commons therefore con- 
sisted almost entirely of zealous Tories and Churchmen, who 
were consequently strong supporters of the crown. 

Parliament opened on Maj^ 10, 1685. In the speech from 
the throne the king plainly iiuiicated that he had I'esources for 
supporting the government independent of their supplies ; and 
that so long as they complied M'ith his demands he M'ould have 
recourse to them, but that any opposition on their part would 
set him fi-ee from the measures of government, which he 
seemed to regard more voluntary than necessaiy. 

Parliament voted that they would settle on his majesty during 
life all the revenues enjoyed by the late king at the time of his 
death. They also resolved that the House entirely relied upon 
liis majesty's royal word, and repeated declarations to support 
the religion of the Church of England, and added that that 
religion, was dearer to them than their lives. 

The Speaker, on presenting the revenue bill to the king, 
took care to inform him in regard to the resolution on religion, 
but could not' receive from him one word in favor of that mo- 
tion. Notwithstanding the suspicions wdiich the silence afford- 
ed, the House continued in the same liberal disposition toward 
liim. 

As soon as James's accession was known in Holland, A^arious 
bands of refugees began to prepare for an invasion of the two 
kingdoms. 



392 JAMES II. [1685. 

The Dukes of Argjle and Monmouth were regarded as the 
chiefs. The former sailed in May, 1(385, with a small fleet, 
and landed in Argyleshire. He collected, and armed a body of 
two thousand five hundred men ; but after wandering about for 
a little time, his small army was at last defeated and scattered 
without a regular battle. Argyle himself, in attempting to es- 
cape, was taken prisoner, and carried to Edinburgh, where, after" 
enduring many indignities with a gallant spirit, he was publicly 
executed June 30th. 

Monmouth sailed from Holland with three ships, and landed 
at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, with scarcely a hundred followers, yet, 
so popular was his name that in four days he had assembled 
over two thousand horse and foot. They were, indeed, almost 
all of them the lowest of the people, and the declaration which 
he published was chiefly calculated to suit the prejudices of the 
vulgar, or the most bigoted of the AYliig party. He called the 
king the Duke oj: York, and pronounced him a traitor, a tyrant, 
an assassin, and a popish usurper. He imputed to him the fire 
in London, the murder of Godfrey and Essex, nay, the poison- 
ing of the late king ; and he invited all the people to join in 
opposition to his tyranny. 

Monmouth advanced without opposition to Taunton, where 
he took upon himself the title of king; his numbers had in- 
creased to six thousand, and he was obliged, for want of arms, 
to dismiss a great many who crowded round his standard. 

The king's forces, under command of Feversham and C'hurch- 
ill, now advanced against him. Monmouth, finding that no con- 
siderable men had joined him, and that an insurrection that had 
been projected in the city had not taken place, and hearing 
that Argyle, his confederate, was already defeated and taken, 
sank into such despondency that he resoh^ed to withdraw him- 
self, and leave his unhappy followers to their fate ; but he was 
encouraged by the negligent disposition made by Feversham to 
attack the king's army at Sedgmoor, and would at least have 
obtained a victory but for his own misconduct and the coward- 
ice of Lord Grey, who commanded his cavalry. After a com- 
bat of three lioui's the rebels gave way (July 0th), and were fol- 
lowed, with great slaughter. Thus was concluded, in a few 



16S5.] JAMES II. 393 

weeks, this enterprise, raslilv undertaken and feebly conducted. 
Monnioutli fled from the field until his horse sank under him. 
He then changed clothes with a peasant, was soon after discov- 
ered bv his pursuers, and taken prisoner. At his own request 
he was brought before the king, and, in the most abject terms, 
conjured him to spare the issue of a brother who liad ever been 
so strongly attached to his interest. After pleading piteously 
for his life on any terms, even offering to become a Romanist, 
he was tried, found guilty, and executed July 15th. 

Such arbitrary principles had the court instilled into all its 
servants, that Feversham, immediately after the \dctory, hanged 
above twent^^ prisoners. But he was outdone by Colonel Kirke, 
a soldier of fortune who had long served at Tangiers, and had 
contracted, from his intercourse with the Moors, an inhumanity 
little known in European countries. He was selected to carry 
out the punishment of the rebel prisoners, and committed the 
most unheard-of cruelties. 

He was succeeded by Judge Jeffreys, a man of bi'utal nature, 
who showed the people that the rigors of the law might ecpial, 
if not exceed, the ravages of military tyramiv. He opened his 
court at Dorchester, Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, and, on the 
whole, besides those who were T)utcliered by the military com- 
manders, three hundred and thirty are said to have fallen by 
the decree of law. The whole country \vas strewed with the 
heads and limbs of so-called traitors, and many innocent per- 
sons were executed. Eight hundred prisoners were sent as 
slaves to the West Indies. Of all the executions of this dreadful 
period, those of Mrs. Gaunt and Lady Lisle, who were accused 
of harboring rebels, and were burned at the stake, were the 
most revolting. 

On the assembling of Parliament they were told by the king 
lie had been obliged to employ several Romanist officers against 
the rebels, and havino; received o-ood. service from them he could 
not, in honor, dismiss them ; he therefore had dispensed with 
the test act in their favor, and desired a large sum of money to 
keep a body of regular troops. These statements being dis- 
pleasing to the Commons they nmrmured and he dismissed 
them. 



39-i JAMES n. [1680. 

About this time Lonis XIY. revoked the edict of Xantes, and 
many thousands of French Protestants repaired to England. 

James prorogued Parliament from time to time, and ulti- 
mately it was dissolved. lie issued his proclamation suspend- 
ing all the penal laws in ecclesiastical affairs and granting a gen- 
eral liberty of conscience to all his sul>jects, and in order to pro- 
cure a better reception for his edict of toleration, finding him- 
self opposed by the Established Church, began to pay court to 
the dissenters, and he imagined that by playing one })arty 
against the other he should easily obtain a victory over both. 
A great number of illegal measures were adopted, a new court 
of ecclesiastical commission was erected, the privileges of the 
universities were violated, and the test act became a dead letter. 

A large standing army was raised, and a camp formed at 
Hounslow, filled with Romanists. 

Another alarming prospect was the continuance of violence 
and the general conduct of affairs in Ireland. Tyrconnel was 
now vested with full power in that country, and lie had for 
chancellor one Filton, a man just taken from jail, and who had 
been convicted of forgery and other crimes, but M'ho compen- 
sated for all his enormities by a determined zeal for the Roman 
Catholic religion. lie was heard to say from the bench that 
the Protestants M-ere all rogues, and that there was not one in 
forty thousand who was not a traitor, a reliel, and a villain. 
The Catholics M'ere put in possession of the council and the 
courts of justice. The charters of the city of Dublin and all 
corporations were annulled and new ones s^ranted, subjecting 
them to the will of the sovereign. The Protestant freemen 
were expelled and Roman Catholics put in their place, and the 
latter sect, as they were in the majority, were now invested with 
the whole power of the kingdom. James also sent the Earl of 
Castlemaine ambassador extraordinary to Rome, in order to ex- 
press his obedience to the Pope, and to make advances for the 
reconciling his kingdom, in form, to the Roman Catholic com- 
munion. The earl was not well received, as the Pope was then 
engaged in a violent quarrel with the French monarch, with 
whom James was closely allied ; he thought more of it than the 
conversion of England. The only acknowledgment James re- 



1087-S.] JAME3 II. oq- 

ceived from the Pope was liis sending a nuncio to England in 
return for the embassy. By act of Parliament any communica- 
tion with the Pope was made treason, yet so little regard did 
James pay to the laws that he gave the mmcio a public re- 
ception, and received him in royal state at Windsor, Julv, 
1687. 

The king published a second declaration of indulgence in the 
year lOSS, and ordered it to be read in all churches, on which 
the Archbishop of Canterbuiy and six other bishops petitioned 
the king against reading the order ; lie immediatelj" committed 
them to the Tower and had them tried for libel, but they were 
acquitted, and the excitement was without parallel in the history 
of that century. 

On June 10, IGSS, Queen Maria gave birth to a son, who was 
afterward known as the Pretender, James Francis Edward. 
The popular opinion was that tlie queen's pregnancy was a sham 
and the child a supposititious one. As this event was impatiently 
longed for, not only by the king and queen, but all zealous 
Catholics, as, without a direct hei]-, the crown would pass to the 
Prince and Princess of Orange, two zealous Protestants, who 
would soon change everything. Yows were accordingly offered 
at every shrine for a miile heir, and pilgrimages undertaken. 

In proportion as this event was agi'eeable to the Catholics it 
was disgusting to the Pj-otestants, for depriving them of the 
pleasing prospect with which they had flattered themselves; but 
this event hastened tlie revolution. 

The foreign policy of England was made subservient to 
France, because the support of that country was necessary to 
James for the success of his home policy. 

Tlie Prince of Orange, ever since his marriage to the Pi-incess 
Mary, had maintained a very prudent course ; he made it a 
maxim to concern himself as little as possible in English affairs, 
and never in any way to take part M'ith any of the factions, or 
give umbrage to the pi-ince who filled the throne. His inclina- 
tion and interest led him to employ his time witli continental 
affairs, and to oppose the encroachments of the French king. 
By this conduct he gratified the prejudices of the whole Eno-lish 
nation, but as he had crossed the inclinations of Charles, who 



396 JAMES II. [IGSS. 

songlit peace bv compliance with France, he liad much declined 
in the favor and affections of that monarch. 

On James's accession a good understanding existed between 
them, and on Monmouth's invasion he immediately despatched 
six regiments of British troops in the Dutch service, and offered 
to take the command of the king's forces ascunst the rebels. 

However little he might approve of James's administration he 
always kept a total silence on the subject, and it was fi'om the 
application of James himself that William first openly took any 
part in English affairs. 

The prince sent over Zuylcstein, an ofiicer of his court, to 
congratulate the king on the birth of his son, who brought back 
to William invitations from most of the great men in England, 
the Earls of Shrewsbury, Devonshire, Nottingham, Dorset, and 
Danby, the Dake of Norfolk, Lord Lumley, Henry Sidney, 
Edward Ilussell, and Henry Compton, the suspended Bishop of 
London, to assist them by his arms in the recovery of their laws 
and liberties. 

The prince was easily engaged to yield to the applications of 
the English, and to endjrace the defence of a nation, which, 
during its present fears and distresses, regarded him as its sole 
protector. 

The great object of his ambition was to be placed at the head 
of a confederate army, and by his val(-)r to avenge the injuries 
which he, his country, and his allies had sustained from the 
haughty Louis. 

James was warned about what was going on by Louis, and 
was offered the assistance of a French fleet and any required 
number of troops for his security, w^iich was rejected by him. 

Meanwhile a declaration from the Prince of Orange was scat- 
tered over the kingdom and met with general approbation. All 
the grievances of the nation were there emmierated, as well as 
the examination into the proofs of the Prince of Wales's legiti- 
macy. 

So well concerted were the prince's measures that in three 
days four hundred transports were hired, the arm}', artillery, 
and stores were embarked, and the prince set sail from Helvoet- 
isluys with a fleet of nearly five hundred vessels and an army 



IGSS.] JAMES n. 397 

of fourteen thousand men, and on Xovend^er 5, IGSS, safely 
landed in Torbay. 

The prince marched his army to Exeter, Avliere he published 
his declaration. The whole country was so terrified by the exe- 
cutions that followed Monmouth's rebellion that for several days 
no one ventured to join him. The Bishop of Exeter, in a fright, 
fled to London and carried to court the first intelligence of the 
invasion. 

The first person who joined the prince was Major Barrington, 
and he was quickly followed by the gentry of the counties of 
Devon and Somerset ; by degrees they came from other coun- 
ties, until the whole country was np in arms and had declared 
for him. 

But the most dangerous symptom was the disaffection which 
crept into the army ; the ofiieers all seemed disposed to prefer 
the interest of their country to the principles of honor and 
fidelity to the king. Whole regiments joined the prince, and 
even men who had been raised to power and dignity by James 
deserted liis standard. 

The king arrived at Salisbury, the headquarters of his ariny, 
wliere he received the fatal intelligence of the desertion of so 
man}' of his troops, and he soon discovered symptoms of discon- 
tent among those who were witli him, and he resolved on imme- 
diately retiring toward London. On his arrival there he called 
a meeting of all the peers and prelates then in the city, and fol- 
lowed their advice in- calling a new parliament and in sending 
commissioners to treat with the Pi-ince of Orange, who declined 
a personal interview, but sent the Earls of Oxford and Claren- 
don to treat with them. The terms which he proposed implied 
the present assumption of the sovereignty, and he immediately 
inarched on London. 

Hull, Xewcastle, Oxford, and other places of importance de-' 
' clared for the prince, and every day many persons of distinction 
joined his standard. 

The contagion of mutiny and disobedience had also reached 
Scotland. The populace rose in arms, and the Privy Council, 
instead of their former submissions to James, now applied to 
the Prince of Orange as the restorer of law and liberty. 



398 JAMES II. [1688. 

Even Prince George of Denmark and liis wife, tlie Princess 
Anne, abandoned the king. 

The queen, seeing the fury of the people, and knowing how 
much she was the object of general hatred, ^vas struck with 
terror, and by the king's advice departed to France with her son, 
the joung Prince of Wales, and a few faithful followers. 

The king, every moment more and more alarmed, and not 
daring to place his trust in any one, determined to seek safety 
in flight, and in tlie niglit-time, accompanied only by Sir Edward 
Hales, departed to take passage on a ship waiting for him near 
the mouth of the river. Put he was seized by tlie inhabitants 
of Feversham before he could embark, and sent prisoner to 
London, much to the chagrin of the prince. lie was there im- 
prisoned in AVhiteliall, where ho was given the opportunity he 
desired, and succeeded this time in embarking on l)oard a frigate 
waiting to receive him. He arrived safely in Picardy, whence 
lie hastened to St. Germains, and was received by I^ouis with 
the greatest consideration, sympathy, and regard. Thus ended 
the reign of James II., Decend)er 11, lOSS. 

By the temporary dissolution of the government the populace 
were masters. They innnediately rose in tumult and destnn'ed 
all the mass-houses, arid even attacked the houses of the Floren- 
tine and Spanish ambassadors. 

In this extremity the peers and bishops who were in town, 
being the only authority of the state, assembled in council, and 
chose the Marquis of Halifax as President. They gave direc- 
tions to the mayor and aldermen for the protection of the cit}' ; 
they issued orders to the fleet and army, which were readily 
obeyed, and they made application to the Prince of Orange to 
assume the authority for the preservation of order, and whose 
success they joyfully coiigratulated. 

Through his courage and ability, seconded by surprising good 
fortune, the prince had effected the deliverance of the king- 
dom with very little effusion of blood, and had dethroned a 
great prince, supported by a formidable fleet and a numerous 
army ; still the most difficult task remained— the obtaining for 
himself the crown. Some lawyers could thiidc of no expedient, 
but that the prince should claiui the crown by right of conquest. 



1«89.] JAMES II. • S99 

and should immediately assume tiie title of sovereign and call a 
parliament, which, being legally sunnnoned, by a king in posses- 
sion, could ratify whatever had been transacted before they 
assembled. But this measure being destructive of the principles 
of liberty, the only principle on which his throne could be estab- 
lished, was prudently rejected by the prince, and, finding liimself 
possessed of the good-will of the nation, he resolved to leave 
them entirely to their own guidance and discretion. 

At length, as a judicious expedient, it was determined that 
all the members who had seats in the parliaments of Charles II. 
(the only parliaments wliose elections were considered free), 
should be invited to meet, and to them were added the mayor, 
aldermen, and fifty of the Common Council of London. This 
was regarded as the most popular representation of the people 
that could be sunnnoned in the present emergency, and circular 
letters were accordingly issued to the counties and corporations 
of England. 

A profound tranquillity prevailed throughout the land, and 
the prince's administration was everywhere submitted to. 

The parliament convention having assembled and having 
passed a vote of thanks to the Pi-ince of Orange, it was then 
resolved, that, " King James II. having endeavored to subvert 
the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original con- 
tract between king and people, and having, by the advice of the 
Jesuits and other Avicked persons, violated the fundamental laws, 
and withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdicated the 
government, and the throne is thereby vacant." 

After sevei'al days' discussion a suitable bill was at last enact- 
ed, and passed both houses, in which they settled the crown on 
the Prince and Princess Mary of Orange, the sole administra- 
tion to remain with the prince, the Princess Anne of Denmark 
to succeed after the death of the Prince and Princess of Orange, 
her posterity after those of the princess, but before those of the 
prince by any other wife. 

The convention also defined the powers of the royal preroga- 
tive, which were more narrowly circumscribed, and more exactly 
defined than in any former period of the English government. 

James abdicated the throne December 11, 1088, after a reign 



400 WILLIAM III. [1689. 

of tliree years, and died in exile at St. Germains, France, Sep- 
tember It), 1701, in the sixty-eighth year of liis age, leaving two 
daughters, Mary and Ainie, and one son, James. 

CoxTEMPORARY RuLERS. — France : Louis XIV. ; Emperor of 
the West: Leopold!.; Spain: Charles II. 




William III. 

William Henry, of Nassau, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder 
of Holland, was born at the Hague, November 4, 1650. lie 
was the son of William II., Prince of Orange, and his wife the 
Princess Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., King of England. 
The House of Orange had long sought to obtain supreme power 
over Holland, l)ut owing to the death of William II., ten days 
before the birth of his son, those projects were for a time put 
a stop to, and threw the power into the hands of the republican 
party, as there was no member of the Orange family of suffi- 
cient influence to be elected Stadtholder, or to maintain its 
policy. For years that party was depressed, the republic being 
governed by Jan De Witt, Grand Pensionary. 

The attack on Holland by France and England in 1072 
changed everything. The Prince of Orange was immediately 
and mianimously appointed captain-general and admiral-in-chief 
of the United Provinces. 

In the long and severe conflict that ensued the allies were at 
first successful, but the ability of William as a general, and 
still more as a diplomatist, detached England from the alliance 
and brought her over to the side of the Dutch, which led to 
the honorable peace of Nimeguen in 1678. 

In November, 1677, AVilliani married his c6nsin Maiw, eldest 
daughter of James, Duke of Yoi-k, afterward James 11. The 



16S9.] WILLIAM III 401 

union was very popular in botli countries, the prince being con- 
sidered the natural head of the Protestant party, and his wife 
being expected to succeed to the English throne. The life-long 
policy of William was already indicated, which was to lessen 
the power of France, which, under Louis XIV., had become 
dangerous to all Europe, and the most dreaded foe to Protes- 
tantism. He consequently strove to sever the relations between 
England and France, a design approved of by most Englishmen. 

A breach, however, was inevitable between him and his father- 
in-law whenever the full bearing of his plans should become 
known to the latter. 

Mary II., eldest daughter of James 11. and his wife, Anne 
Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, was born at Kensing- 
ton Palace, April 30, 1662, her father, at the time of her birth, 
being Duke of York and heir-presumptive to the throne. 

She was educated at Richmond Palace with her sister, Anne, 
her teacher being Pichard Compton, Bishop of London, and 
was well informed for those times. She married William, 
Prince of Orange, November 4, 1677, an alliance which Avas 
very popular with the English people. 

Mary's father, as heir-presumptive to the British crown, was 
an object of jealousy to all Protestants, except the high church- 
men, and even they saw with pleasure that his heir, the Prin- 
cess of Orange, was strongly attached to the Church of Eng- 
land. 

William was jealous of his wife's position, as, should she 
succeed to the throne, she would be his superior in rank and 
power, and should she die before him, and childless, the throne 
would pass to her sister Anne. William stood next in the 
order to Anne, and all hope of Charles II. having legitimate 
offspring had long been abandoned. 

AVilliam was not a faithful husband, but the personal difficul- 
ties between him and his wife were removed before those of a 
political cliaracter were known to her. Burnet, afterward 
Bishop of Salisbury, effected a complete reconciliation between 
them, the princess pledging herself to surrender all power to 
her husband should circumstances ever place her on the British 
throne. 

26 



^02 WILLIAM IIL fl689. 

Allien William found himself obliged to take the leadership 
of that comprehensive opposition party which was formed in 
England against the king, in 16SS, he was strennonsly supported 
bj his wife against her father. The latter, since her marriage, 
had never treated her well, and had nsed some of her friends 
harshly and illegally ; and Mary shared in the common belief 
that the Prince of Wales, born in 16SS, was a supposititious 
child, who had been brought into the royal family to prevent 
her fi'om ever enjoying her inheritance. 

She acquiesced in the plan for the invasion of England, and 
when the Earl of Danby sought to obtain the throne for her, 
on the ground that there had been a demise of the crown and 
she was the next heir, she wrote him an earnest reprimand, de- 
claring that she was the prince's wife, and that she had no other 
wish than being his subject; that the most cruel injury that 
could be done to her would be to set her up as his competitor, 
and that she never could regard any j)erson as her true friend 
who took such a course. 

Could William have had his way, he would have reigned 
alone, and Mary would have been only queen-consort, but the 
opposition to this plan was so great that he never pressed it. 

The Convention Parliament declared William and Mary 
King and Queen of England on February 13, 1GS9, Mary hav- 
ing arrived the day previously. 



1689.] WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL 40 J 




William III. and Mary II. — A.D. 1689-1702. 

William was born at the Hague, November 4, 1650. 
Married Mary, November 4, 1677. 
Mary was born at St. James's Palace, April 30, 1663. 
William and Mary were crowned April 11, 1689. 
William died at Kensington, March 8, 1702. 
Mary died at Kensington, December 28, 1694. 

William began his reign witli a proclamation confirming all 
Protestants in the offices they enjoyed on the first day of 
December last past. Then he chose the members of his conn- 
cil who were staunch to his interest, except the Archbishop of 
Canterbury and the Earl of Nottingham, and they M'ere ad- 
mitted to propitiate the church party, which it was not thought 
advisable to provoke. Nottingham and Shrewsbury were ap- 
pointed Secretaries of State ; the Privj^-seal was bestowed on 
the Marquis of Halifax, and the Earl of Dauby was created 
President of the Couiicil. These two noblemen enjoyed a larg-e 
share of the king's confidence, and Nottingham was useful as 
head of the church party ; but the chief favorite was Bentinck, 
first commoner on the list of privy councillors, as well as Groom 
of the Stole and Privy Purse. The treasury, admiralty, and 
chancery were put in commission ; twelve able judges were 
chosen. 

The first resolution taken in the new council was to convert 
the convention parliament into a parliament, that the new 
settlement of the crown might be strengthened by a legal sanc- 
tion, which was now supposed to be wanting, as the assembly 
had not been convoked by the king's Ma-it of summons, but that 
he should now, by his own authority, change the convention 



404 WILLIAM IIL AND MARY IL [1C89. 

into a parliament- by going to tlie House of Peers with the 
usual state of a sov^ereign, and there deliver a speech from the 
throne. 

This expedient was accordingly carried out, and both houses 
met on February 13, 16S9. Tiie king assured Parliament that 
he should never take any step that would diminish the good 
opinion they had formed of his integrity. 

He told them that Holland was in such a situation as required 
their immediate attention and assistance ; that the state of af- 
fairs at home likewise demanded their serious consideration ; 
that a good settlement was necessary, not only for the estab- 
lishment o£ domestic peace, but also for the support of the Prot- 
estant religion abroad ; that the affairs of Ireland were too 
critically situated to admit the least delay in their deliberations. 
He therefore begged they would be speedy in concerting such 
effectual measures as should be judged indispensably necessary 
for the welfare of the nation. 

The Commons having retimied to their house, a vote of 
tlianks was passed for the king's speech, and a long discussion 
ensued. A bill was at once introduced for preventing all dis- 
putes in the future concerning the legality of the present Par- 
liament, which immediately passed both Houses, and received 
the king's assent. 

James, before the revolution, had called into England four 
Scotch regiments, and they still remained in England. (One 
of them is to-day in the British army, and is known as the 
1st Royals, or Iloyal Scots.) They had served in Germany 
with distinction, and had strictly preserved their nationality, 
and had always been commanded l)y a Scotchman, and were 
devotedly attached to James as YII. of Scotland. William had 
no authority over them, but he appointed Marshal Schomberg, 
a Frenchman, as Colonel in command, and ordered them to em- 
bark for Holland, which they refused to do, and started on 
their return to Scotland. William sent one of his Dutch gen- 
erals, M'itli an overwhelming force, after them. The brave 
Scots were outnumbered five to one, and were obliged to sur- 
render. Officers and men were tied together, brought back to 
London, and then shipped to Holland more like convicts than 



1689.] WILLIAM III AND MARY IL 405 

soldiers. Dutch soldiers were then brought over to garrison 
England,' and English soldiers were sent to fight and perish in 
William's foreign wars. 

William and Mary were crowned on April 11, 1689, by the 
Bishop of London, at the king's desire, instead of Bancroft, the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, and next day the Commons, in a 
body, waited on the king and queen at Whitehall with an 
address of congratulation. 

Parliament voted money to indemnify the Dutch for the 
expenses incurred for William's expedition to England, amount- 
ing to £600,000 ; they also voted for raising and ecpiipping an 
army of twenty-two thousand men, and the building and ecjuip- 
ping a numerous fleet, but they only provided for six months' 
sustenance of the men, hoping that the reduction of Irelai\d 
might be finished in that time. 

An act was passed nnder the title, " For exempting their 
majesties' Protestant subjects, dissenting fi'om the Church of 
England, from the penalties of certain laws." A revenue bill 
was also passed providing for the expenses of the civil govern- 
ment. 

It was now judged expedient to pass an act for settling the 
succession of the crown, according to the former resolution of 
the convention. 

A bill for this purpose M^as brought into the Lower Douse, 
with a clause disabling Papists from succeeding to the throne ; 
to this the Lords added, " or such as should marry papists," 
absolving the subjects in that case from their allegiance. 

The Bishop of Salisbury, by the king's direction, proposed 
that the Princess Sophia, Duchess of Hanover, and her poster- 
ity should be nominated in the act of succession, as the next 
Protestant heirs, failing issue of the king and Aime, Princess 
of Denmark. This l)ill was opposed in the Lower House by 
those wlio wished well in secret to the late king and his heirs, 
and by others who wished to see monarchy totally abolished in 
England by the death of the three persons already named in 
the bill of succession. At length the bill was dropped for a 
'time, owing to the Princess Anne being safely delivered of a 
son, July 2Tth, who was christened by the name of William, 



406 WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL [lOSO. 

and afterward created Dnke of Gloucester, William dissolved 
Parliament on February 6, 1690. 

England joined a coalition which William, as Stadtholder of 
Holland, had formed with Austria, Spain, and other states, 
against France, and on April 16th a motion was made in Parlia- 
ment, requesting the king to take measures against the en- 
croachments of France in the late years, and particularly to 
prevent the latter country from supplying the rebels in Ireland 
M'ith men, money, and arms ; and on May 7, 16S9, William de- 
clared war against that country, charging Louis with making 
war on the allies of England ; with having encroached on 
the fisheries of Newfoundland ; invaded the Caribbee Islands ; 
taken forcible possession of New York and Hudson's Bay ; 
made depredations on the English at sea; persecuted English 
subjects on account of their religion, and for having sent sup- 
port to the rebels in Ireland. 

Having so far described the revolution in England, we must 
now briefly explain the measures taken in Scotland toward the 
establishment of William on the throne of that kingdom. 

A meeting of the Convention was called at Edinburgh, for 
March 14, 1680. The Duke of Hamilton, and all the Pres- 
byterians, declared for William, The partisans of James were 
headed by the Earl of Balcarras, and (Iraham, Viscount of Dun- 
dee. The first dispute turned upon the choice of a president. 
The friends of the late king set up the Duke of Athol in oppo- 
sition to the Duke of Hamilton, but the latter was elected by a 
large majority. 

Letters were presented from King William and King James. 
The former exhorted the Convention to concert measures for 
the settlement of the peace of the kingdom upon a solid founda- 
tion, and to lay aside animosities and factions, which served only 
to impede that salutary settlement. 

James promised to give them speedy and powerful assistance 
that would enable them to defend themselves from any foreign 
invasion, and offered pardon to all those who should return to 
their duty before the last day of the month, and threatened to 
punish rigorously all such as should stand out in rebellion against' 
him and his authority. 



1689.] WILLIAM III. AND MARY H. 407 

This address produced very little effect in favor of tlie unfor- 
tunate exile. 

Tlie Convention then approved and recognized, by a solenni 
act, the conduct of the nobility and gentry who had entreated 
William to take the administration upon him, and acknowledged 
their obligation to the Prince of Orange, who had prevented the 
destruction of their laws and religion, and besought his highness 
to assume the reins of government of that kingdom ; they then 
despatched this request by the hands of Lord Ross, 

After the departure of Lord Ross the Convention appointed 
a connnittee, consisting of eight lords, eight knights, and as 
many bui-gesses, to prepare the plan of a new settlement. They 
made a report that the throne was vacant, and proposed that it 
should be filled by William and Mary, King and Queen of Eng- 
land, wliich was received, voted for, and carried. An act for 
such settlement was accoi'dingly prepared, and on April 11, 
1689, it was approved of and solemnly proclaimed at the Mar- 
ket Cross of Edinburgh, by the Lord Provost, and on May 11th, 
the coronation oath was administered at Whitehall by the Earl 
of Argyle. 

There was, however, in Scotland, a strong party in fa^'or of 
James, headed by the Duke of Gordon, and supported by the 
Archbishop of Glasgow, the Earl of Balcarras, Viscount of 
Dundee (Claverhouse), and others. 

Dundee succeeded in raising between two and three thousand 
Highlanders, with whom he defeated, at Killiecrankie, May 26, 
1689, the king's forces of double the number; but Dundee re- 
ceived a mortal wound in the action, and witli him expired all 
James's hopes in Scotland. 

The Highlanders, dispirited by the loss of their leader, dis- 
persed after a few skirmishes, and the Duke of Gordon, having 
surrendered Edinburgh Castle, on June 13th, the wdiole country 
was reduced to obedience. 

Li L-eland, Tyrconnel was still Lord Deputy. His govern- 
ment had been marked by violence toward the Protestants : 
many towns were deprived of tlieir charters, and the public 
offices Avere filled with Roman Catholics. 

Alarmed, however, at William's success, he had intimated his 



408 WILLIAM III. AND MARY II. [:cm. 

willingness to surrender Ireland to any force respectable enongli 
to justify the act ; an offer which William neglected by the ad- 
vice of Halifax, who represented to him that Ireland formed 
the only pretext for keeping an army on foot. 

While he was in this state of doubt, Tyrconnel received a 
letter from James announcing that he was about to sail from 
Brest Avith a powerful armament, whereupon tlie Lord Deputy 
exerted himself to raise a large for«e of half-wild, ill-armed, and 
worse disciplined Irish. 

. James landed at Kinsale, March 12th, and was received with 
every demonstration of joy. Louis XIA^. had furnished him 
Avith fourteen ships of the line, six frigates, and three fire-ships, 
but the Avhole land-force whicli he brought Avith him consisted 
of one thousand tAvo hundi-ed of his own subjects in the pay of 
France and one hundred French officers. 

At Cork James Avas met by Tyrconnel, AA'hom he raised to 
the rank of duke. The sight of the troops that Avere to fight 
for his cause Avas not calculated to inspire him Avitli any very 
sanguine hopes of success. Scarcely two in a hundred Avere 
provided Avith muslvcts fit for service ; the rest Avere armed with 
clubs and sticks tipped Avith iron. More tlian one hundred 
thousand of this rabble were on foot, but he found himself 
obliged to disband most of them, and retained only thirty- 
five regiments of infantry and fourteen regiments of horse. 
Llis Avhole artillery consisted of tweh'e field-pieces and four 
mortars. 

After summoning a parliament to meet at Dublin, May Tth, 
James set out for his army in the Xoi'th, AA'here Londonderry 
AA^as invested. 

That place and Enniskillen, being inhabited by Protestants, 
were the oidy toAvns in Ireland that declared for King William. 
Lundy, the Governor of Londonderry, had sent a message to 
James's headquarters, with assurances that the place would be 
surrendered on tlie first summons ; but his treachery Avas for- 
tunately discovered, and it was Avirh difliculty he escaped Avith 
his life by letting himself down from the AA'alls in the disguise 
of a porter. 

James, avIio had ridden up Avith his staff to Avithin a short 



1690.] WILLIAM III. AND MARY II. 409 

distance of the gates, was saluted with tlie cry of '* no snrren- 
der," and, at tlie same time, a discharge from the fortifications 
killed an officer by his side. 

The army of James was ill-provided with materials for a siege, 
and after some fruitless assaults it was turned into a blockade. 
He now returned to Dublin, in order to meet the Parliament ; 
he was induced to pass several injudicious acts, especially one 
to repeal all acts of settlement, thus subverting at a blow all 
the English property in the country, as well as a general bill of 
attainder, comprehending more than two thousand persons ; and 
his scheme for replenishing his coffers by an issue of base coin 
occasioned universal disgust. 

In June, Marshal de Rosen was appointed to take command 
of the besieging army of Londonderry. 

The siege lasted one hundred and five days, and was one of 
the most memorable in the history of Britain. The garrison 
had been reduced from seven thousand to three thousand men, 
w^ien it was relieved by Kirke with three ships, July 30th. 
The same day Lord Mountcashel had been completely routed 
by the Protestants of Enniskillen at Kewton Butler, and he 
himself wounded and taken prisoner. 

To add to James's misfortunes, Schomberg landed with ten 
thousand men near Donaghadee, on the coast of Down, August 
12th. Carrickfergus surrendered to him after a short siege, 
and was treated with great cruelt3\ He then encamped in the 
neighborhood of Dundalk, the Duke of Berwick, James's natu- 
ral son, retiring on his approach. James, having in vain en- 
deavored to draw him to a battle, closed the campaign of 10S9 
by retiring into winter quarters at Atherdee. 

The new parliament that met in March was composed chiefly 
of Tories. William announced his intention of passing over 
to Ireland, and a supply of £1,200,000 was unanimously voted. 
Parliament, having reversed the attainders of Lord Russell, 
Lady Lisle, Sidney, and others, adjourned until Octoljcr. 

William arrived at Carrickfergus on June l-f, IGOO, and pro- 
ceeded to Schomberg's headquarters at Lisburn. His army 
amounted to about thirty-six thousand men, variously composed 
of English, Dutch, Germans, and other foreigners. 



410 WILLIAM III. AND MARY XL [1690. 

0!i liis approach, the Irish annj retired to the south bank of 
the Buyne, which is steep and hilly, and had been fortified 
with entrenchnients. When James joined them, there were 
ten thonsand French troops nnder Lauzun. His whole army 
amounted to about thirty thousand men, and though his force 
was thus considerably inferior to that of William's, he was in- 
duced, by the strength of the position, to hazard a battle. 

On the morning of July 1st James drew up his troops in two 
lines, his left being covered by a morass, while in his rear was 
the village of Dromore. William attacked the enemy in three 
lines, and was successful at all points. The Irish horse alone 
made some resistance ; the foot fled without striking a blow. 
James fled from his army at the pass of Duleek, and made the 
best of his way to Dublin ; he then hastened to Kinsale, where 
he got on board a French frigate, and arrived at Brest July 9th. 

This eno;a(jement, celebrated as the battle of the Bovne, de- 
cided the fate of James, though the loss on both sides was 
small, the Irish being about one thousand five hundred, while 
William's loss was under five hundred. 

The king arrived in Dublin a few days after his victory, and 
treated the inhabitants with great harshness. lie then marched 
southward, took AYexford, Clonmel, Waterford, Dimcannon, 
and laid siege to Limerick, but having been repulsed in an as- 
sault, and the rains setting in, he found it necessary to raise the 
siege, and early in September he left Ireland for London. 

Soon after his departure Marll)orough landed near Cork with 
five thousand men, and having received some reinforcements, 
captured the town after a short siege. lie next took Kinsale, 
after a desperate resistance, and, as the winter was approachhig, 
he then returned to England, from which he had been absent 
only five weeks. 

While William was in Ireland a naval engagement took place 
off Beachy Head on June 30tli, between the combined Dntch 
and English fieets, commanded by Admiral Herbert, and the 
French fleet under Admiral Tourville, in which the French were 
victorious. William was incensed against Herbert on account 
of the losses suffered by the Dutch, and denounced him to Par- 
liament. He was tried by court-martial and honoi-ably acquitted. 



1690] WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL 4U 

but the king deprived liiin of his coniniaiid and forbade him liis 
presence. 

Wilh'am fonnd it an easier task to unite the councils of Eu- 
rope against the common enemy than to conciliate and preserve 
the affections of his own subjects, among whom he began vijsibly 
to decline in popularity. Some were dissatisfied with his meas- 
ures, and a great number, even those who exerted themselves for 
his elevation, had conceived a dislike to him from his personal 
conduct, which was very nnsuital)le to the manners and customs 
of the Englisli people. Instead of mingling with the nobility in 
social amusements and familiar conversation, he maintained a 
disagreeable reserve which had all the air of sullen pride ; he 
spent his time chiefly in the closet, retired from all comnnmica- 
tion, or among his troops in the camp he had formed at Ilouns- 
low. 

His constitution was weak, and his ill-health and natural 
aversion to society produced a peevishness which was most dis- 
pleasing to those who were obliged to be near him. 

Parliament was reopened on October 2, 1G90, by the king. 
In the speech from the throne he told both Houses what he had 
done toward the reduction of Ireland ; spoke of the bravery of 
the troops ; told them the supplies were not eqnal to the de- 
mands of the government, and represented the danger to which 
the nation would be exposed unless the war was prosecuted w^th 
vigor. 

In answer to the speech both Houses presented addresses to 
the king and queen, congratulating him npon his courage and 
conduct in the field, and her fortitude and sagacity at the helm, 
in times of danger and disquiet ; and the Commons, pursuant to 
an estimate laid before them, voted a supply of <£4,000,000 for 
the maintenance of the government. 

As Bancroft, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and six of the 
bishops still refused to take the oath of allegiance, they were 
deprived of their sees, and Tillotson, Dean of St. Paul's, suc- 
ceeded Sancroft as Archbishop and Primate. 

William went to the Honse of Lords to give the royal assent 
to a bill for doubling the excise. He told the Parliament that 
the posture of affairs on the continent reqnired his presence at 



412 WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL [1091. 

the Hague ; tliat therefore thej^ ought to lose uo tiuie iu per- 
fecting such other supplies as wei-e still necessary for the main- 
tenance of the army and navy, and he reminded them of making 
some provision for the civil government. 

Two hills were accordingly passed for granting to their majes- 
ties the duties on goods imported for live years, and these, with 
the mutiny hill, received the royal assent, and on January 5, 
1G91, the king prorogued Parliameut. He told them it was 
high time for him to depart for Holland, recommendiug una- 
nimit}', and assured them of his particular favor and protection. 
Having settled the affairs of the nation lie emharked at Graves- 
end ten days after with a numerous retiiuie, and set sail for Hol- 
land, under convoy of twelve ships of war, arriving at the Hague 
after a tempestuous passage, and was received hy the several states 
and the people with great joy. 

I].e assisted at a congress of the confederate princes, where 
he represented to them the dangers to which they were exposed 
from the power and amhir.ion of France, and the necessity of 
acting with vigor and despatch, and promised to assist them in 
evei-y way with men and money, and that he would soon return 
at the head of his troops to fulfil his promise. 

William returned to England, arriving at London April 4, 
1691. His first husiness was to settle the operations for the en- 
suiug campaign in Ireland, M'liere General Giukell exercised 
supreme coumuind. He then manned his fleet hy dint of press- 
ing sailors, to the great annoyance of commerce, and returued to 
Holland, where he spent the sunnner of 1(11>1, conducting the 
campaign against Louis XIV., returning to England in Oc- 
toher. 

Duriu"- the kino;''s ahsence the c;overnment received informa- 
tion of a plot, and the Earls of Marlborough, Huntingdon, and 
Scarsdale were apprehended and sent to the Tower on the infor- 
mation of one Young, a man of infamous character, then in 
Xewgate on a charge of forge r^^ As the government suspected 
Marlborough they encouraged Young, paid his fine and released 
him from prison, but his falsehood was discovered and the pris- 
oners were discharged. 

General Ginkell commenced his campaign in Ireland May, 



1691-3.] WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL 413 

1001. He gave tlie Catholic rebels to undeivstand that he was 
authorized to treat witli tlieui if they were inclined to return to 
their duty. Both armies then took the field, with varied suc- 
cess, but in the end tlio rebels were entirely subdued, and on 
October 1, IGOl, a capitulation was executed, extending to all 
the places in the kingdom that were then in the hands of the 
Irish, and the Roman Catholics were restoi'ed to the enjoyment 
of tlieir liberty and religion which they possessed in the reign of 
Charles II. 

Quiet was now restored in Scotland. Since the death of 
Dundee the Highlanders liad no capable leader, and the meas- 
ures taken for peace in the north, which led to the massacre of 
the Macdonalds at Glencoe, has left a stain on William's repu- 
tation. 

Parliament had voted an army of sixty-five thousand men, 
forty thousand of whom were to serve beyond sea, and the navy 
was brought to a greater efliciency than at any previous period 
since the revolution. 

The judges were made independent of the crown as to their 
terms of ofiice, and could not be arbitrarily removed, and 'their 
pay was fixed at £1,000 per annum. 

King James now published a declaration, which was not sup- 
pressed by the queen. 

In it there was not a word of regret for the past ; not a woi'd 
that could hold out a prospect of amendment for the future ; it 
breathed vengeance against nobles and pi-elates who were 
named, and threatened whole classes with punishment as guilty 
rebels, especially the judges who had convicted Jacobites, and 
those who had offered indignities to him. Such were the 
threatenings of the exiled king, and these threats gave evidence 
of what might be expected of him when he returned at the 
head of a French army, which he had induced Louis to hazard 
the chance of landing in England. Louvois, the French war 
minister, who had previously opposed the invasion, being dead, 
the French king was now free to assist him with ten thousand 
French troops, and the Irish regiments which had entered the 
service of France. 

A camp was formed at La Hogue, and James announced 



4,14: WILLIAM III. AXD MARY IL ri()93. 

" tliiit as tlio most Christian King Louis liad now lent ns so 
many troops as may be abundantly snificient to nntie the hands 
of our subjects and make it safe for them to return to their 
duty and repair to our standard." 

On April 2-J:th James joined his camp in Xormandy ; he not 
only relied on the French and Irish army, but upon the defec- 
tion of the English fleet, as not only the admiral but several of 
the superior officers had been tampered with by his agents, but 
they had all become disgusted with his insane declaration Avhich 
he had published, and Avere now true to their king and country. 
On May 15, 100:^, the English fleet Avas at St. Helen's, where it 
was joined by the Dutch ships, the whole force amountiug to 
ninety sail of the • line. Tourville was in comnumd of the 
French fleet <:»ff La Ilogue, where the transports lay receiving 
the troops for the invasion of England. 

The two fleets met off La llogue on the morning of May llHli. 
Tourville immediately bore down upon the enemy, although 
nearly double his number, but believing in the defection in the 
English fleet, thought he would have an easy victory ; but it 
was nowhere to be seen, and to vindicate their honor from such 
a stain which had been cast on them, the commanders lU'ged 
their men, and they became invincible ; the battle lasted five 
hours, and the victory was complete. Tourville, with his ships 
and transports that escaped capture, now lay in the Bay of La 
Hogue, protected by the forts and batteries, with the army of 
James close at hand. On May 23d Admiral Rooke led a flotilla 
of two hundred boats and numerous fire-ships into the bay. The 
ships and batteries opened fire on them without nmch effect ; 
they continued to advance ; the French crews abandoned their 
ships, the English sailors boarded and set fire to them ; the fol- 
lowing morning another flotilla entered the bay and completed 
the work of destruction, until the M'hole fleet was destroyed, 
and the hopes of James blasted. 

On the news of the victory j-eaching England, Queen Mary 
made a vow that their Palace of Gi-eenwich, then building, 
should be converted into a retreat for disabled seamen who had 
suffered in the service of their country, which vow was kept to 
the letter, and which Englishmen look on with pride at the 



ir:9.:-G.] William iil and mart il 41 5 

present time as the noble asylum for the disabled mariners of 
England. 

When the news of the victorj of La Ilogue reached William 
he was in command of the allied armies encamped in the neigh- 
borhood of Naniur, then besieged by the French, and which 
fell on May 30th, AVilliam receiving censure for allowing the 
place to be taken almost within sight of his army. lie was 
also defeated at S.teinkirk on August 3d following, and returned 
to England on October 18th, where the outward signs of wel- 
come were bestowed on him, but there were many symptoms of 
political and social troubles which made sober men uneasy. 

The queen had, just previous to Willianxs return, issued two 
proclamations, one for the discovery of seditious libellers, the 
other for the apprehension of highwaymen, and William took 
strong measures to put down these enormities. Many highway- 
men were discovered and executed, but the libellers worked 
their secret presses without much injury to themselves or the 
government. 

Parliament was opened by tlie king on November 4, 1G92. 
lie thanked the House for tlieir large supplies, but would be 
compelled to ask them for a stil^ further supply to maintain a 
force by sea and land, which it was not possible to avoid with- 
out exposing the kingdom to ruin and destruction, and he hoped 
for their advice and assistance, which had never failed him. 

The House of Commons set about giving advice, but it did 
little more than dis]3h^y ill-humor as to the conduct of the war. 
Several important measures were passed during this session, 
among them the bill originating the present national debt of 
Great Britain, entitled " An Act to enable such persons as shall 
voluntarily advance the sum of £1,000,000 toward carrying on 
the war against France," etc. The money was speedily sub- 
scribed, as the industry of the people had created capital which 
was now seeking employment. 

An act was also passed as a security to the foregoing one, 
granting to their Majesties duties of excise upon beer, ale, and 
liquors ; also another bill excluding all placemen from sitting in 
the House who should be elected after February, 1603. Pre- 
viously men holding office of every kind were then in Parlia- 



416 WILLIAM III. AND MARY IL [1693. 

meut. On March 14, 1003, botli Houses wci-e prorogued, and 
on the :20th WUliam again left England, arriving at the Hague 
in due course, where he had to miite the discordant members of 
the confederacy ; to soothe the rix'alries of princes, who each 
wanted some supremo conunaud ; to tempt some with money, 
some with promised lionors. 

He now took the Held, and entrenched himself near Louvain 
to prevent an advance of the French upon Liege or Brussels, 
and although inferior in numbers, was resolved to hazard a 
battle with the enemy. 

On the morning of July 20, 1003, the French advance found 
the allies occupying the heights of the two villages of Xeer- 
winden and Bas-Landen, one on the right, the other on the left. 
The great struggle was to l)e the occupation of Xeerwinden. 
The French attacked with the impetuosity of their nation, and 
were repulsed by the English characteristic obstinacy. For 
twelve hours the battle raged, twenty tliousand of both armies 
were slain, and the victory remained witli France. AVilliaJU 
fought bravely, and was among the last to quit the iield. In 
three weeks he had gathered all his forces about him at 
Brussels. 

He returned to England early in Xovend)er, and Parliament 
met on the Ttli of that month. A great change in the adminis- 
tration of the govei'muent now took place, and a Cabinet Coun- 
cil was formed for the tirst time, taking the place of the Privy 
Council, and becoming responsible for the acts of the govern- 
ment, and that cabinet was formed from the party having the 
majority in Parliament. A AVhig ministry was formed, with 
the Earl of Sunderland at its head. 

The king and his new ministers did nor shrink from asking 
from the Parliament a larger supply than ever for carrying on 
the war. Eighty-three thousand troops were voted for the ser- 
vice of 1004, and the naval estimates were also largely increased. 
The Whig majority in the House of Commons was strong 
enough to bear down all mn-easonable opposition, and to raise 
the large sums necessary. Several new taxes were imposed, such 
as the poll and land taxes, stamp duties, a tax on hackney 
coaches and lotteries. But money beino; still wantini::, the ne- 



1694.] WILLIAM IIL 417 

cessitj gave birth to one of the greatest establishmaits in the 
^vorld — " The Bank of England." The capital it started with 
was £1,200,000, and the subscription list was filled in ten days. 

The king prorogued Parliament on ^Vpril 25th, and ten da^'s 
after sailed for the continent, where he remained for several 
months, and although under arms, accomplished nothing of im- 
portance, returning to England in the fall. 

Parliament was opened by the king on November 12, 1694. 
The supplies were vot id and a bill passed for the liolding of 
triennial parliaments. 

Small-pox now raged in London. Thousands M'ere dying 
from this fatal disease, then considered as terrible as the plague. 
The queen had been ill for two days, when it miis discovered 
that she had taken that dreadful malady. She was innnediately 
told of her danger ; she was quite calm and resigned, and died 
shortly after, on December 28, 109-4, in the thirty-third year of 
her age and fifth of her joint reign, 

^Villiam III.— Alone, A.D« 1694-1702. 

The death of the queen appears to have greatly affected "Wil- 
liam, and it was some time before he recovered from the loss he 
had sustained. 

The Princess Anne had lived on bad terms with her sister 
and Ijrother-in-law, owing to the influence of Marlborough and 
his M-ife, but was now induced by Lord Sunderland to send a 
lettei- of condolence to William, and as she was a greater favor- 
ite with the nation than himself, he thought it politic to meet 
her advances, and he even pi-esented her with the greater part 
of Mary's jewels. 

The session of Parliament of 1695 was signalized by the dis- 
covery of an almost universal corruption, by which statesmen 
in power, and those in opposition, were moved to support or re- 
sist some measure in which large pecuniary interests were in- 
volved ; and the Speaker, Sir John Trevor, and other members 
of the House were proved to have received bribes. They were 
tried, found guilty, fined, and imprisoned. 

This session is also memorable for a silent revolution which 
37 



418 WILLIAM III [1635-C, 

lias done mncli for liberty and civilization — the abolition of the 
censorship of the press, by the Connnons refusing to renew the 
act for restraining unlicensed printing. The abolition M'as soon 
followed by the establishment of several newspa})ers. The 
London Gazette was the only one previously publislied. 

After the proroijation of Parliament William passed over to 
Holland early in May, 1G95, and, at the head of eighty thou- 
sand men,, commenced his summer campaign in the Low Coun- 
tries, and after a siege of forty days Naniur fell to his arms. 
France was now l)ecoming -exhausted by the length of the war, 
and Louis was anxious to conclude a peace on any decent terms, 
wdiilst William's reputation was now rising in Europe, and his 
success abroad confirmed his j^ower at home ; for though the 
Jacobite party was increasing in England, they could hai'dly 
hope to succeed without assistance from France. 

After a successful campaign AVilliam returned to England 
October 10, 1()95, and immediately issued a proclamation calling 
a new parliament, and to propitiate his subjects started on a 
journey through the country, visiting many of the principal 
cities and towns. 

The elections proved generally favorable to the goverimient, 
the Whig party acquiring considerable strength. 

Parliament met on Xovenjber 22, 1005. The most impor- 
tant part of the king's speech was on the state of the coinage, 
and how they could convert four millions of money, intrinsically 
worth only two millions, into money of a true standard. A new 
coinage was ordered, and a house tax and a window tax passed 
to make up the deficiency. 

A plot was discovered, early in 1090, against the throne and 
the life of the king. The principal agent in it was Sir George 
Barclay, a Scotch ofiicer, who received a conmiission from 
James to attempt a general insurrection in his favor. The king 
was to be attacked on his way to hunt in Pichmond Park ; but 
the secret was betrayed to the Earl of Portland. Five of the con- 
spirators were condemned and executed. The king laid the whole 
plot before Parliament, and both houses responded with a joint 
address, breathing the most zealous expressions of duty and affec- 
tion, and a bill was passed suspending the habeas corpus act. 



169G.] WILLIAM III. 419 

Another act was passed that Parliament should not be dis- 
solved by the death of the king ; and they also resolved " That 
his i^resent majesty, Khig William, is rightful and lawful Idng 
of these reahns," and also pledging themselves to support and 
defend his majesty's person and government against the late 
King James, and all his adherents, and to defend the law of 
succession, passed in the first year of the reign of King William 
and Queen Mary. 

A similar action was taken by the House of Peers. William 
again embarked, and arrived at the "Hague May 7, 1696. On 
the 22d he wrote to his Secretary of State, " That the French 
had first taken the field, and that -tlie allied troops were assem- 
bling as well as they could, but were unable to move for want 
of money to furnish the necessarj^ supplies." 

But the English treasury was empty, the country bankrupt, 
hnd no money could be raised. 

Of all the sufferers in this crisis, it is impossi])le to conceive 
a man placed in a more distressing condition than the sovereign, 
who was to fight the battles of his country at the head of a 
great European confederation. On June -ith he wrote, " In the 
name of God determine quickly to find some credit for the 
troops, or we are ruined." " AVe are reduced to greater extrem- 
ities than ever for want of money, and if we do not soon receive 
some remittances, the army will be disbanded," he wrote July 23d. 

He again wrote, "If yon cannot devise expedients to send 
contributions, or procure credit, all is lost, and I must go to the 
Indies." 

The army, whose mutiny or total desertion was imminent, 
stood between Louis of France and the subjugation of Holland. 
If Holland became a province of France, England would soon 
be in the same condition, M'ith a Stuart Viceroy, under the con- 
quering Bourbon. What then remained ? To foimd a great 
commercial and maritime empire in the Dutch settlements of 
the East, to balance the despotism of the Old World. 

The heroic confidence of William had revived, he would not 
" go to the Indies ; " the nation that God had " so often almost 
miraculously saved "would be saved again, even in this dire 
extremity. 



420 WILLIAM HL [1696-7. 

It has been said, and witli great trutli, that " the vessel of our 
comniunwealth has never been so near to sliipwreck as at this 
period." 

On Angast 15th the ministers made an earnest appeal to the 
Bank of England for a loan, which they succeeded in obtaining, 
and which gave temporary relief. 

The taking of Carthagena in America by a Fi-eneh squadron, 
and the capture of Barcelona by a French army, inclined the 
Spaniards to come to terms with Louis. 

- AVilliam returned to England, and on October 20, 1G90, Par- 
liament met. He told both Houses "that overtures had been 
made to him, in order to enter into negotiations for a general 
peace, but I know you will agree with me, that the only way of 
treating with Fi'ance is with our swords in our hands, and that 
we can have no reason to expect a safe and honorable peace but 
by showing ourselves prepared to make a vigorous and effectual 
wai-." 

During the campaign of 1696 the French remained on the 
defensive, nor did anything of importance take place at sea. 

Pai'liament now wisely passed a bill that they would not alter 
the standard of gold or silver in fineness, weight, oi' denomina- 
tion, and they would make good all pari i amen tarj' funds since 
his majesty's succession to the throne. The effect of this meas- 
nre was instantaneous ; those who had l)een hoarding gold or 
silver, expecting a large premium, immediately brought it forth, 
trade revived, and the country was saved from ruin and bank- 
ruptcy. 

The king closed the session of Parliament on April 16, 1697, 
and on the 26th again embarked for Holland. On his arrival 
there, plenipotentiaries were appointed by the several powers to 
discuss the terms for a ti'eaty of peace M'ith the ministers of 
France, and Xewbury House, belonging to William, was se- 
lected, at Ryswick, between the Hague and Delft. At the end 
of June they had concluded nothing, while the French and 
English armies were facing each other in the neighl)orhood of 
Brussels. This state neither of peace nor war suited William's 
temper. As the plenipotentiaries could not come to tei'ms with 
their many bows and ceremonial speeches, William thought 



1697.] "WILLIAM III ^21 

there could be found a man in each anny wlio could interpret, 
in a straightforward manner, the wishes of their sovereii^ns. 
The Duke of Portland was thoroughly in the confidence of 
William. He sent a message to Boufflers, who, after the cap- 
ture of JSTamur, had been his prisoner for a few days, request- 
ing half an hour's private conversation with him at some place 
between the two arrtiies. While Boufflers was the duke's pris- 
oner they had formed one of those intimacies which often 
spring up between generous enemies. 

Boufflers asked the consent of his sovereign, and received it 
with the condition that he should keep the appointment with 
all the dignity becoming a marshal of France. He was also 
ordered to speak as little as possible, but to draw from Portland 
all he could. 

They met on July 8th, at the village of Brucum, standing 
apart from the rest of their attendants in an orchard. Portland 
stated his terms in plain w^ords on the j)art of England and the 
States General, and after six interviews, the treaty of Ryswick 
w^as concluded between France, England, the States General, 
and Spain, on September 22, 1697, and an extended term was 
given to the Emperor of Germany to accede to the treaty. 

On November 26tli William made his entry into London. 
E"ever was public joy more manifest. The evil times had 
passed away, and it w\as now hoped that the nation would go 
forward in a career of prosperity under a stable government. 

Well might England rejoice. Her constitutional king was at 
last acknowledged by the proud monarch of France, after nine 
years of incessant struggle against difficulties which w^ould have 
crushed any common man. December 2, 1697, was a memoi-a- 
ble day for England. It was the day of general thanksgiving 
for peace, and was made more memorable by the opening and 
dedication of the new cathedral of St. Paul's, which had been 
for twenty-two years gradually rising out of the ashes of the 
old chm-ch. 

The following day William opened Parliament. In his 
speech the most important topic, after the affairs abroad, was 
for the safety of England in the future and tlie necessity of 
establishing a regular standing army ; but the Commons were 



422 WILLIAM III [1698. 

not yet prepared for sucli a step, and voted tlie sum of £350,- 
000 for the maintenance of troops for the current year. 

In tlie sunnner of 1698 William took his usual journey to 
Holland. He was the chief agent in the negotiations provid- 
ing for the Spanish succession. 

Philip IV. of Spain had left three cliildren — one son, Charles 
II., and two daughters. The elder, Maria Theresa, married 
Louis XIV. of France, and the younger, Margaret Theresa, 
married the Emperor Leopold I. Maria had renounced her 
pretensions to the Spanish succession on her marriage with the 
King of France. The younger sister had made no sucli renun- 
ciation on her marriage with Leopold ; hut their only child, a 
daughter, who was married to Maximilian Enmnuel, Elector of 
Bavari;!, was also obliged, before her marriage, to abandon all 
claims to the Spanish throne. But both France and Bavaria 
maintained that these princesses had no power to renounce the 
claims of their posterity. Louis tlierefore demanded the Span- 
ish throne for his son, the dauphin, and the Elector of Bavaria, 
for his son, the electoral prince. 

A third claimant was the Emperor Leopold, Avho, by a second 
marriage, had two sons — Jose]>li, King of the Romans, and the 
Archduke Charles. Leopold claimed the succession for his son 
Charles, on the ground that he was a lineal descendant of 

Philip in. 

William was content to modify the claim of France by con- 
ceding to that countr}' part of the Spanish dominions, and 
Louis appeared to be satisfied with this partial inheritance 
rather than have to hght for the whole. A treaty for the par- 
tition of Spain was accordingly negotiated, and on the chsath of 
Charles the kingdom was to be divided between the dauphin 
and the electoral prince ; but Charles unexpectedly recovered, 
and the treaty and the will were defeated by the death of the 
electoral prince at Brussels, Februar^'^ 8, 1()99. 

The new parliament assembled December 6, 1698, and ex- 
hibited strong symptoms of discontent. It insisted on the 
reduction of the army to seven thousand men, and it was also 
voted that they should be natives of the British dominions, 
which gave great annoyance to the king. 



1700-1.] WILLIAM III. 423 

The yonng Dnke of Gloucester, the only surviving child of 
the Princess Anne of Denmark, died on July 30, 1700, in the 
eleventh year of his age. 

For a couple of jea,YS William passed the most of his time 
in disputes with Parliament, partly on account of their wish to 
disband the army and navy, and he was much engaged in con- 
tinental diplomacy, his chief object still being to check the 
power of France and strengthen that of the ^Netherlands. 

A new parliament met February 6, 1701, under new minis- 
terial influence. The speech from the throne touched particu- 
larly upon the death of the Duke of Gloucester, which made it 
absolutely necessary that there should be a further provision for 
the succession of the crown in the Protestant line ; and the 
house passed the resolution " that they would stand l:)y and sup- 
port his majesty and his government, and take such eifectual 
measures as may best conduce to the interest and safety of 
England, the preservation of the Protestant religion, and the 
peace of Europe;" and on March 3d that part of the king's 
speech regarding the succession was brought before the Oom- 
mons, and after a protracted debate, the nomination of the 
Princess Sophia and her descendants, after the Princess Anne 
and her heirs, was carried and became law. On June 21:th 
Parliament was prorogued, and on July 1st the king embarked 
for Holland. 

On September 16, 1701, King James II. expired at St. Ger- 
mains, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. He w^as visited, 
just before his death, by the French king, Louis, who, having 
desired that no one should withdraw, said, "I am come, sir,. to 
acquaint you that whenever it sliall please God to call your 
majesty out of tliis world, I will take your family under my 
protection ; I will treat your son, the Prince of Wales, in the 
same manner I have treated you, and acknowledge him, as he 
then will be. King of England." And the Prince of Wales 
was immediately proclaimed King of England by the title of 
James III., on which AYilliam ordered his ambassador to quit 
France. 

William arrivecl from Holland on Xoveniber 4tli. On the 
11th he dissolved Parliament. 



42-1 WILLIAM in. [1701-2. 

The new parliament met on December 30, 1701, the king de- 
livering the last parliamentary speech he ever made. He de- 
scribed the setting, np of the Prince of Wales as King of England 
as the greatest indignity that conld be offered to himself and to 
the nation ; he then annonnced that he had concluded several 
alliances in order to avert the general calamity with which the 
rest of Christendom is threatened by the exorbitant power of 
France. " It is fit I should tell yon that the eyes of all Europe 
are upon this Parliament ; all matters are at a standstill till 
your resolutions are known, and therefore no time ought to be 
lost." 

He called upon them to provide a great strength at sea and a 
land force that should be proportionate to the forces of the allies, 
and after using every argument he closed his speech with these 
words : " If you do in good earnest desire to see England hold 
the balance of Europe, and to be indeed at the head of the Prot- 
estant interest, it will appear by the right improving the pres- 
ent opportunity." 

The Connnons immediately voted a supply of £000,000 ; they 
resolved that an address be presented to the king, requesting 
that it be an article in the several treaties of alliance, " That no 
peace shall be made with France until his majesty and the na- 
tion have reparation for the great indignity offered by the 
French king in owning and declaring the pretended Prince of 
Wales King of England." They voted forty thousand men for 
the land forces and forty thousand for sea service. 

When William went to Holland the previous summer he ap- 
peared in the last stage of bodily feebleness, but the altered 
spirit of the present parliament appeared to infuse new life into 
him ; he took delight in the additions to Hampton Court, and 
w^ent there once a week to hunt. It was there, on February 
21st, that he fell from his horse and fractured his collar-bone. 
The injury was not considered serious; he was conveyed to 
Kensington. 

On the 23d he sent a message to the Commons. He referred 
to a connnission appointed in the first year of his reign for 
treating of a union of England and Scotland, and he was con- 
vinced that nothing would more contribute to the present and 



170-2.] AXXE. 425 

f ntnre happiness of the two kingxloins than a firm and entu-e 
union between them. 

This w^as the last public act of his life. He died March 8, 
1Y02, with a clear and full presence of mind, and with wonder- 
ful tranquillitj, in the fifty-second year of his age and thirteenth 
of his reign, leaving no issue, and was succeeded by his sister- 
in-law Anne. 

CoNTEMPOKAKY RuLEES. — France : Louis XIY. ; Emperor of 
the West : Leopold I. ; Spain : Charles IL, Philip Y. ; Kussia : 
Peter the Great. 

Anne — A.D. 1702-1714. 

Bom at St. James's Palace, February 6, 1065. 

Crowned April 23, 1702. 

Married George, Prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683. Issue : • 

William, Duke of Gloucester, died 1700. 

George, died young. 

Mary, died 1086. 

Anne, died 1687. 

Mary, died young. 

Queen Anne died at Kensington, August 1, 1714, none of her issue surviving. 

Anne, second daughter of James IL and his M'ife, Anne Hyde, 
was born at Twickenham, near London, February 6, 1G65. 
Though both her parents had joined the Koman Catholic Church, 
she was educated in the principles of the Church of England, 
and in the year 1683 she was nuirried to Prince George, brother 
of Christian Y,, King of Denmark. 

It was for some time a matter of doubt and deep anxiety 
what part she would take in the contest which distracted Eng- 
land, between her father, James IL, and the party of the Prince 
of Orange, but the influence of the vehement Duchess of Marl- 
borough, for whom Anne liad a romantic fondness, at length 
made her decide the question against the promptings of filial 
affection. 

She renounced the pui'pose of accompanying her father into 
exile, adhered to the dominant party, and by the act of settle- 
ment the British crown was guaranteed to her and her children 
in default of issue to William and Mary. She lived in retire- 



426 ANNE. [1703. 

ment until the deatli of Williain, liavino; -undergone strange 
vicissitudes of fortune and many mortifications during tlie late 
reign. In the meantime she had conducted herself with such 
discretion as left little or no pretence for censure or resentment. 
She was endowed with a natural good temper and disposition, 
which was not easily ruffled or inflamed. 

She was devoted to the Church of England, from which her 
father had used some endeavors to detach her before the revo- 
lution. She lived in great happiness with her husband, and had 
borne him several children ; all of them died in infancy. The 
friendship between her and the king and (pieen was only formal, 
but after her sister's death she avoided all unsecndy differences 
with him. 

On the death of AVilliam the Privy Council, in a body, waited 
on Anne and acknowledgxKl her queen. She immediately an- 
swered them : " I think it proper, on this occasion of first speak- 
ing to you, to declare my own opinion of the importance of car- 
rying on all the preparations we are making to" oppose the great 
power of Fra'nce, and I shall lose no time in giving our allies all 
assurances that nothing shall be wanting on my part to pursue 
the true interest of England, together with theirs, for the sup- 
port of the conimon cause." 

By a statute of 1696, which had regard to the dangers of in- 
vasion or conspiracy, it was provided that Parliament should not 
be dissolved by the demise of the crown, but nught sit for six 
months, unless prorogued or dissolved. 

Poth houses met immediately and unanimously voted an ad- 
dress of condolence and one of congratulation, and on the after- 
noon of March 8, 1702, the queen was proclaimed. The follow- 
ing day the Lords and Commons attended her in a body, each 
with an address, congratulating lier on her accession to the 
throne, and assuring her of their firm resolution to support her 
against all her enemies whatsoever. The Commons declared 
they woidd maintain the succession to the crown in the Protes- 
tant line and effectually provide for the public credit of the 
nation. 

These addresses were graciously received by the queen, who, 
on March 11, went to the House of Peers with the usual solem- 



1702.] ANNE. 427 

nity, where, in a speech to botli lionses, she expressed lier satis- 
faction at their unaniuions concurrence M'ith her opinion ex- 
pressed to the Privy Councih 

She also desired they would consider the proper methods 
toward obtaining a union between England and Scotland. She 
observed to the Commons that the revenue for defraying the 
expenses of the civil government had expired, and she relied 
entirely on their affection for its being supplied in such a man- 
ner as would be most suitable to the honor and dignity of tlie 
crown. She declared it should be her constant endeavor to 
make them the best return for their duty and affection by a care- 
ful and diligent administration for the good of all her subjects. 
"As I know my own heart to be entirely English, I can ver}^ 
sincerely assure you there is not anything you can expect or de- 
sire from me which I shall not be ready to do for the happiness 
and prosperity of England, and you shall always find me a strict 
and religious ol)server of my word." 

These assurances were agreeable to the Parliament, and she 
received the unanimous thanks of both Houses. On April 23, 
1702, the queen was crowned at AVestminster Abbey. 

Addresses of congratulation were presented by the Lord Bisliop 
and clei'gy of London, by the dissenters in and about that city, 
and by all the counties, cities, and towns of England. She de- 
clared her attachment to the church, and promised her protec- 
tion to the dissenters, and received the compliments of all her 
subjects with such affability as insured their regard and affection. 

The Earl of Marlborough was sent as an envoy extraordinary 
to the States General, and on May 4th arranged for a joint 
declaration of v\'ar against France by England, the States Gen- 
eral, and the emperor, and he concerted the plan for the first 
warlike operations. 

That day war was proclaimed with the usual solemnities in 
"Westminster and the city of London. 

Parliament was prorogued on May 25th and dissolved on 
July 2(1. The civil list that had been granted to King William 
was continued to Queen Anne. Her majesty was empowered 
to appoint commissioners to treat for union between England 
and Scotland. 



42S ANNE. [1702. 

The Earl of Marlborongli left London for tlie iTagne on May 
IStli, and soon after his arrival was appointed by the allies 
Generalissimo of all their forces. He appears to have sncceeded 
by connnon consent to the power which was wielded bj' King 
William. lie went vigorously to the work before him ; he 
drew the allied forces together, so as to be at the head of a 
powerful army. He carried Venloo by storm on September 
ISth ; he besieged and took Ruremonde and Stevenswart; cap- 
tured Liege by storm, October 2-ith, the English being the first 
to get upon the breach ; and in a few days afterward the castle 
of Charti'ense was surrendered to him. 

At the close of the campaign he was taken prisoner, as he 
was going down the river Maas, by the French, and after some 
detention escaped, after being plundered by those who did not 
know the value of the man they had taken. He arrived safely 
in London shortly after, and received high honors and great 
rewards. 

The first Parliament of Queen Anne met on October 20, 
1703. The Tories were now in power, and had a large major- 
ity in the House. 

In answer to the speech from the throne, the majority thought 
it desirable to compliment the cpieen on the progress of the war 
under Marlborough, and to insult the memory of him Avhose 
firnmess and perseverance had alone enabled England and 
Holland to hold iu check the power of France. They concluded 
their malicious address hy adding, " That as she had always 
been an illustrious ornament of the church, we promise our- 
selves, that, in her reign, we shall see it perfectly restored to 
its due rights and privileges." 

During William's reign the Protestant dissenters, a numerous 
and wealthy body, had been relieved from the penalties of cer- 
tain laws, but now the High Church party were for extreme 
measures against them, and the spirit of the time of Charles 11. 
was roused again. One of the first proceedings of the new 
Commons was to bring in a bill to prevent occasional conform- 
ity ; by it dissenters were prevented holding office, and other 
liabilities. The bill passed the Lower House by a large major- 
ity, but it was strongly opposed by the Lords ; the debate con- 



1702-3.] ANNE. 429 

tinned, and conferences took place between both Ilonses, and at 
last, bj the iniinenee of the court, the bill was carried by a 
majority of one, the Prince of Denmark voting for it as a peer 
of Parliament. 

Geoi'ge, Prince of Denmark, was invested with the title of 
Generalissimo of all the queen's forces by sea and land, and 
Lord High Admiral of England. 

On Deceml)er 10, 1702, the cpieen announced to Parliament, 
that for the eminent services of the Earl of Marlborough she 
had thought iit to grant him the title of duke, and had also 
granted him the sum of £5,000 per year out of the revemies of 
the post-office ; he had previously been appointed a Knight of 
the Order of the Garter, and had received the title of Captain- 
General of her majesty's forces. 

The campaign of 1703 was as barren of any signal advantages 
to the armies of the allies as to the arms of France. Parlia- 
ment had voted an augmentation of troops, and there was no 
want of decision on the part of Marlborough to employ the 
forces of which he had the command in the manner most likely 
to be productive of a great result. 

The Elector of Bavaria had now joined the French ; had sur- 
prised the strong fortress of Ulm, and had opened the way for 
the armies of Louis to the centre of Germany. The French, 
under r)0ufflers, threatened Holland. Marll)orough was desir- 
ous of attackincr them whilst the strono-er French armies were 
otherwise engaged. The States General pressed upon him 
the opportunity of securing Bonn, which capitulated to him 
after a short siege. Three months later Iluy surrendered to 
the allies, but these successes were of comparatively small im- 
port. 

Marlborough had matured a plan for attacking AntM'erp, and 
carrying the war into Flanders ; but, owing to dissensions 
among the generals and with the States General, it was aban- 
doned, and he decided to act more independently indiis next 
campaign. His last attack for the season was Limburg, which 
fell after a short siege. 

On Kovember 9th the queen opened the second session of her 
first Parliament. The foreign policy which she aimounced as- 



430 ANNE. [ir03-4. 

sumed larger proportions than the object Avliich had been origi- 
nally defined for tlie war. 

Its purpose was no longer simply " to resist the great power 
of France," but for recovering the monarchy of Spain from the 
House of Bourbon, and restoring it to the House of Austria. 
The queen announced that she had made a treaty for this object 
with the King' of Portugal, and that subsidies would be required 
for the Duke of Savoy, who had declared his intention to join 
the alliance. Nearly the whole of this session was occupied 
with most serious disputes between the Lords .and Commons, 
and the violent political tempests were followed by a most won- 
derful war of the elements. On the night of Xovember 27, 
1703, a most terrific temj)est arose, and spread throughout the 
land, which ended in a national calamity from the amount of 
public and private property destroyed, and for which a general 
fast was observed throughout the kingdom. 

The campaign of 170i was meant l)y Louis XIV. to decide 
the great question by which Europe was agitated. Large de- 
tachments from the French army of Flanders were to be led by 
Marshal Villei-oy ; Marshal Tallard was to leave the Tlhine, and 
advance into Suabia, through the Black Forest ; the army of 
Italy was to march through the Tyrol into Austria ; the Hun- 
garians, then in a state of insurrection, were to be assisted by 
French troops. 

On May 5th, the States General, having consented that Marl- 
borough should lead the joint forces to the Moselle, the troops 
began their march, and that general decided on conducting them 
up to the Danube, without the knowledge or consent of the 
allied governments. He continued his march along the Rhine, 
collecting the reinforcements from the allies as he went. On 
June 3d he passed the ISTeckar by a bridge of boats at Laden- 
burg; troops were drawing near to join him as he advanced — 
Dutch, Luxemburg, Hessian, and Danish— and he expected to be 
on the Danube in ten clays. On the lOth he met Prince-Eugene 
for the first time, and three days after was joined by the Prince 
of Baden. The latter asserted his claim of precedence to be 
with the main army as its commander, and it Avas at last agreed 
that he and Marlborough should command on alternate days, 



1704.] ANNE. 431 

and tliat Prince Eugene should return to tlie Hhine and com- 
mand a body of thirty thousand men there — the security of 
the lines and the passage of the Rhine being of the greatest 
importance. 

On July 1st Marlborough received information that an army 
of French and Bavarians were posted in an intrenched camp 
upon the Schellenberg. 

Next morning Marlborough advanced on the enemy with 
fourteen regiments of English foot and seven of cavalry, and, 
after a march of fourteen miles, attacked the entrenched camp, 
utterly defeating the enemy. Their loss was nine thousand 
men, while the allies lost five thousand killed and wounded. 

Marlborough then entered Bavaria, burning and destroying 
the whole country as he went. On August 9th he was informed 
that the whole Franco-Bavarian army was advancing, and he 
made his arrangements, collecting his different armies, with the 
intention of forming an encamj^ment at Ilochstadt, and on the 
12th, he says, " we went to view the ground, but found the 
enemy had already possessed themselves of it, whereupon we 
resolved to attack them." 

On the night of August 12th orders were given that the 
allied armies should advance before break of day. 

Marlborough and Eugene were sufficiently near with the 
advance guard by seven o'clock in the morning to take a view 
of the position of the Franco-Bavarian army. Their right was 
at the village of Blenheim, where Marshal Tallard had his 
headquarters ; their left was at the village of Lutzengen, cov- 
ering a space of over four miles, on rising ground, and covered 
by a wood. It was past noon before Eugene could get into 
position, owing to the difficulties of the ground. It was agreed 
by the two commanders that the battle should not commence 
until both were ready. The announcement from Eugene was 
made ; Marlborough mounted his horse, and gave command for 
the lines to move forward to cross the Nebel, and that General 
Cutts should connnence the attack on Blenheim. Attacks were 
made, repulsed, repeated again and again, until at last the 
enemy were completely beaten, and Marshal Tallard and a 
large part of his army taken prisoners, having lost fourteen 



432 ANNE. [1704. 

tlioiisand left dead on tlie field. The loss to tlie allies was 
eleven thousand killed and wounded. 

The blow to the power of France was tremendous. All the 
prestige of her glories under Turenue and Luxemburg was gone. 
" There never," savs Cunningham, " was a battle fought within 
the memojy of man wherein either the courage of the soldiers 
or the prudeuce of the generals M'ere more conspicuous than on 
tliis day." The grief of Louis at this disgrace may be imagined. 
At the moment when he believed the fate of Europe was in his 
hands he now found himself reduced to act simply on the de- 
fensive. 

The remaining part of the French army were flying through 
the Black Forest, and did not consider themselves safe until 
they had crossed the Ehine. 

The 17th of August was devoted l^y the armies of the allies 
as a day of thanksgi\'ing to the Almighty for his blessing upon 
their arms. 

On the 20th of the same month the allies were before Ulm, 
which soon after surrendered. They then ad\^anced to the 
siege of Landau. The defence of this strongly fortified place 
was obstinate, but it fell in sixty days. 

Marlborough concluded a peace with the Electress of Bavaria, 
who was left regent, by which she agreed that all the Bavarian 
troops should be disbanded. He then posted to Berlin and con- 
cluded a treaty with the king. He was admitted as a priuce of 
the Koman Empire by the Emperor of Germany, and a princi- 
pality was created for him. On December IGth he ai'rived at 
the Hague, and from thence he travelled to London, which he 
reached on the 2r)th, accompanied by Marshal Tallard and other 
distinguished prisoners. 

While Marlborough was leading the armies on the Bhine 
another army was operating on the Peninsula, and on August 
2, ITOJr, Gibraltar was captured. 

The following 3'ear the war was carried on in Spain hj the 
Earl of Peterborough, to place Charles of Austria on the throne, 
against Philip of Bourbon, assisted by the French. Barcelona 
and other towns and fortifications were taken, and Charles III. 
was proclaimed king. 



1704-5.] ANNE. 433 

Marlboi'ongh embarked at Harwich, on Marcli 31, 1T05, for 
the Hague. It was a month before lie could get the States 
General to agree to his plan of leading the English and Dutch 
troops to tlie Moselle, there to co-operate with the troops of 
Prince Louis of Baden, and by marching between that river and 
the Saar to penetrate into Lorraine, and thus carry the war into 
France. He crossed the Moselle on June 3d, and met the 
French army under Villars, but they retreated, and he formed 
a camp at Eft. The weather was bitterly cold, and little could 
be performed. 

Scarceh^ anything was done during the whole of this cam- 
paign, owing to the divided councils of the generals command- 
ing the allied armies. Marlborough was indignant, and sent an 
oiScer to the Hague to represent " that unless the command be 
more absolute in one person, we shall hardly be able to do any- 
thing. Councils of war are called on every occasion, which en- 
tirely destroys the secrecy and despatch upon which all great 
undertakings depend." 

Writs were issued in England for a new election. The last 
House of violent Tories was not in harmony with the triumph- 
ant resistance to the power of Fj-ance, as they were led to hope 
that some day the great Louis would give them back a king, 
with a more legitimate title, in their eyes, than any title that 
could be conferred by an act of settlement, and this election 
roused up a bitterness of party feeling that had rarely been 
ec]ualled in England, and a cry was raised throughout the land 
of " The Church in danger." The queen had shown more fa\or 
to the Whigs, and the High Churchmen gave out the rallying- 
cry from their pulpits ; but the Whigs conquered. 

The new parliament met on Octobei' 30, 1705. Li the speech 
from the throne the queen complained of the malicious insinua- 
tions that the Church w^as in danger, and said " I will always 
affectionately support and countenance the Church of England 
as by law established ; I will invariably maintain the toleration ; 
I will do all I can to persuade my subjects to lay aside their 
divisions, and will study to make them all safe and easy." 

The Lords and Commons then agreed to the following reso- 
lution : " That the Church of England, as by law established, is 
28 



434 ANNE. [1705-6. 

now, by God's blessing, nnder the bappy reign of Her Majesty, 
in a most safe and flourishing condition, and whosoever goes 
about to suggest and insinuate that the Church is in danger, 
nnder Her Majesty's administration, is an enemy to the queen, 
the Church, and the kingdom." 

The queen then issued a prochimation, declaring that " We 
will proceed with the utmost severity the law allows of against 
the authors or spreaders of the said seditious and scandalous 
reports, viz., that the Church is in danger." 

Marlborough again left for the Hague on April 27, 1706. 
He wanted to go to the relief of the Duke of Savoy, and co- 
opei'ate with Prince Eugene in freeing Italy from the French 
armies, but owing to the jealousy of the Hanoverians, Danes, 
and Hessians, he had to give up that idea. He consented to 
remain in command of the English and Dutch armies, provided 
his power was unfettered. To this the States consented, and 
the troops began to march from the Hague May 7th. 

On May 23d, when the duke began his march, at three o'clock 
in the morning, to gain the open space between the Mehaigne 
and the Great Gheet, that position was found to be occupied by 
the enemy. The allies, having cleared the village of Mierdorp, 
formed in order of battle in the plain of Jaudriuffiuil, The 
enemy was posted on eminences above the marshes, having the 
village of Ramillies in the centre. It was a formidable posi- 
tion. Marlborough advanced to the western extremity of the 
plain. The battle commenced. The whole French and Bava- 
rian cavalry had every chance of taking the allied infantry in 
the rear, who were attacking Ramillies. When Marlborough saw 
the danger he put himself at the head of seventeen squadrons 
and charged the French cavalry. It was a light hand to hand, 
to be decided by main strength rather than strategy. He cut 
his way through, his horse was killed under him ; he remounted, 
and at that time a reserve came up, which decided the battle to 
the left. The allies were equally successful to the right and 
.centre, above Ramillies, when the shout of victory announced 
that the position had been gained, which insured an ultimate 
success ; and three hours had been occupied in these terrible 
encounters, but the changes of fortune had been so various, the 



1706-7.] ANNE. 435 

confusion of onset and retreat so great, tlie disorder attendant 
upon troops of all arms being mixed in one common effort so 
extreme, that Marlborougli was compelled to form liis forces 
again upon the ground they had won. Marshal Yilleroy now 
endeavored to take up a new line, but was impeded by his own 
baggage. Before he could get his battalions formed Marlbo- 
rough ordered a general advance to the sources of the Little 
Gheet, but before the morasses were crossed the French began 
to fly, and one headlong panic and slaughter closed this fearful 
day. Onward went the pursued and pursuers toward Louvain, 
and Marlborough did not halt until he reached Mildert, thirteen 
miles from the battle-field. The French and Bavarians went 
into battle with sixty-two thousand men, and lost seven thou- 
sand killed and wounded, and six thousand prisoners. 

The allies had sixty thousand men, and lost nearly four thou- 
sand killed and wounded. 

The artillery, baggage, and eighty standards were the spoils 
of the victors. 

Ostend capitulated on July Tth ; Menin, one of the strongest 
fortresses of Yauban, was carried by assault with great loss on 
August 22d ; Dendermonde surrendered on September 5th, 
and the last fortress to fall was Ath, on October 4th. • Marl- 
borough' returned home to receive the thanks of Parliament and 
to take pai't in the great event of the session of 1706-T — the 
union of England and Scotland into one kingdom. 

We must now revert for a while to the domestic affairs of 
the country where the important project of a union with Scot- 
land was in agitation. That measure had occasionally attracted 
the attention of statesmen ever since the accession of James I. ; 
but as the period approached when the succession to the crown 
was to be diverted into a new line, the necessity for it became 
urgent, and Anne, in her speech to her first Parliament, had 
recommended it as indispensable to the peace and security of 
both kingdoms. William had neglected to provide for the suc- 
cession of the Scottish crown, and a large party in that country, 
headed by the Duke of Hamilton, were in favor of the Stuarts. 
A bill for the Hanoverian succession was rejected by the Scot- 
tish Parliament with every mark of anger and contempt ; many 



436 ANNE. [170-4-5. 

were for sending Lord Marelimont, its proposer, to the Castle 
of Edinbnrgh, and it was carried bj a large majority that all 
record of it should be expunged from their proceedings. The 
same assembly passed what they called " An Act of Secm-ity," 
by wliich.it was provided that the Parliament should meet on 
the twentieth day after the queen's decease to elect a successor, 
who should not be the successor to the crown of England uidess 
nnder conditions which might secure the honor and indepen- 
dence of Scotland. The queen refused her assent to this bill, 
but in the following year (August 5, 1704) she thought proper 
to allow another bill to the same effect to be touched with tlie 
sceptre, of which the main proviso was that the successor to the 
crown should be a Protestant of the royal line of Scotland, and 
at the same time not the successor to the English crown. As 
the house of Hanover was thus excbided, the Duke of Hamilton 
himself, the great promoter of the bill, seemed in a fair way to 
obtain the crown. 

This proceeding excited great alarm in England. The House 
of Peers, in order to obviate its effects, resolved that no Scotch- 
men, not actually residing in England or Ireland, should enjoy 
the privileges of Englishmen till a union of the two kingdoms 
should be effected, or the succession made identical in Scotland 
and England, and the bringing of Scotch cattle into England, 
and of English wool into Scotland should be prohibited ; and 
that the fleet should have orders to seize all Scotch vessels trad- 
ing with France. These resolutions, which were almost equiva- 
lent to a declaration of war, were reduced into a l)ill ; and an- 
other act was passed to appoint conimissiouers to treat of a union. 

The Lords also addressed the queen to fortify Newcastle, 
Tyneniouth, Cai'lisle, and Hull, and to call out the militia of 
the four northern counties, and to station an adequate number 
of regular troops on the Scottish borders. The C^ommons re- 
jected the proposed bill on the ground that the fines levied by it 
rendered it a money bill ; but they passed another to the same 
effect (February 3, 1705), which went through the Lords with- 
out any amendment. 

In the following session further steps were taken to secure 
the succession of the House of Hanover, and a regency bill was 



1706-7.] ANNE. 4.37 

passed in the event of the queen's death. In April, 1706, Lord 
Halifax, accompanied bj Clarenceiix, king-of-anns, was de- 
spatched to Hanover to present the Electoral Prince with the 
Order of the Garter, and to convey to his family an act of 
naturalization. About the same time thirty commissioners, 
appointed by the queen, met to consider the articles of a union, 
with a like number from Scotland. They sat until July 23d, 
when the following were the more important among the articles 
agreed upon : That the two kingdoms should be united under 
the name of Great Britain ; that the succession should be vested 
in the Princess Sophia and her heirs, being Protestants ; that 
there should be but one Parliament of the United Kingdom, to 
which ijixteen Scotch Peers and fortj^-five commoners should be 
elected ; that there should be a complete freedom of trade and 
navigation throughout the United Kingdom, and a reciprocation 
of all rights, privileges, and advantages. 

These articles were ver}' unpopular in Scotland, but, without 
the succor of France, it seemed hopeless to resist them, and the 
reverses of Louis in the war put it out of his power to assist 
the Pretender. 

Li the Parliament, indeed, where the Peers and Commons 
sat in one house, a spirited opposition was led by the Duke of 
Llamilton and Fletcher of Saltoun ; and during the progress of 
the debates violent tunnilts occurred in Edinburgh. The lower 
classes of Scotch, and especially the Presbyterians of the 
west, were almost universally opposed to the union, and offers 
were made to Hamilton from various quarters to march to 
Edinburgh and disperse the Parliament ; but that nobleman, 
though loud in debate, M'as timid in action. He would not lis- 
ten to such vigorous counsels, and he even shrank from an en- 
gagement which he had made with his adherents to protest 
against the measure and quit the Parliament in a body. 

All the articles were eventually adopted by a large majoi-ity, 
January, ITOT. 

The act of union was carried through the English Parliament 
but with trifling opposition, and received the royal assent on 
March Gth. The union was appointed to connnence on May 1, 
1707, which was made a day of thanksgiving. 



43S ANNE. [1707. 

The Scottish Parliament met for the hist time on Marcii 20, 
1707, and the first Parliament of Great Britain was called to 
meet on October 28d following. 

The Order of the Thistle was revived by Qneen Anne. 
The nnndjer of ordinary knights was limited to twelve peers of 
Scotland. 

On December 3, 170G, a new parliament assembled. The 
qneen, in her speech, after congratulating the nation on the glo- 
rions snccesses of her arms, desired the Commons would grant 
such supplies as might enable her to improve the advantages of 
this successful campaign. She told them of the treaty of union 
between the two kingdoms as concluded by the commissioners, 
and recommended despatch in public affairs, that both friends 
and enemies might be convinced of the firnmess and vigor of 
their proceedings. Parliament was perfectly well disposed to 
comply with all her majesty's requests, and voted £0,000,000 
for the services of the government for the ensuing year, and on 
December 31st adjourned until March for a short session ; lit- 
tle business being before the House beyond the act of union, 
it was prorogued until the meeting of the Parliament of Great 
Britain in October. 

During tlie year 1707, Marlborough Avas acting the part of a 
diplomat rather than a soldier. The allied armies in Spain had 
met with several reverses, the Spaniards now making it a ques- 
tion not between the houses of Austria and Bourbon, but be- 
tween King Philip and the foreign enemy. 

A terrible fate overtook Sir Oloudesley Shovel and his fleet 
on their return from the Mediterranean. The fleet sailed from 
Gibraltar on September 20th, consisting of fifteen sail of the 
line and several frigates, and on October 22d they arrived at 
the mouth of the channel, when, by some mistake in the course 
of the admiral's ship, she, with five other ships of the fleet, 
struck on some rocks west of the Scilly Isles, and all on board 
perished. The union between the two kingdoms was not work- 
ing well ; the general taxation being assimilated, there were 
perpetual differences about the collection of the excise. 

The Scotch had been accustomed to have their duties farmed, 
and when the ganger came round the loose system would no 



1707-8.] ANNE. 439 

longer prevail, and indignation and resistance were the conse- 
quence. 

The first Parliament of Great Britain met at Westminster 
on October 26, 1707, which was opened by the queen in due 
form. The supplies were granted, and debates took place in 
both houses on tlie conduct of the war ; several bills wei-e passed 
regarding the government of Scotland, and disputes occurred 
which caused the resignation of Mr. Ilarley, the queen's princi- 
pal adviser. 

In March, 170S, an attempted invasion of Scotland was made 
by a French fleet, having on board the Pretender, Charles Ed- 
ward, and a body of troops, but owing to the vigilance of Ad- 
miral Byng and a large fleet, together with boisterous weather, 
the invaders returned to Dunkirk, after being tossed about for 
thirty days. 

On May 25th the Duke of Marlborough commenced the cam- 
paign. On July 11th the most important battle of that year 
was fought at Oudenarde, in Flanders, with victoi-y to the allied 
forces, by which the French army was lessened by twenty tluju- 
sand men. 

The island of Sardinia was taken by the English admiral. Sir 
John Lake ; the capture of Minorca, and other triumphs in the 
Mediterranean and South America again established the naval 
superiority of England. 

On Octol)er 28, 1708, the queen's husband. Prince George of 
Denmark, died of dropsy with which he had been long afllicted. 
lie was a prince of an amiable rather than a shining character, 
brave, good-natured, modest, and humane, but devoid of great 
talents and ambition. 

He had always lived in harmony with the queen, who, during 
the whole term of their union, and especially in his last illness, 
proved herself a pattern of conjugal tenderness. 

The year's campaign wound up by the captui-e of Lille ; it 
capitulated on December 29th ; its loss to France was considered 
irreparable. A desire for peace was now manifest at the French 
court. 

The first session of the second Parliament of Great Britain 
was opened by commission on November 16, 1708. The Whig 



44.0 ANNE. [1708-10. 

interest preponderated, and tlie session was continned until 
April 24:, 1709. 

The speech was read by the lord chancellor, recommending 
the vigorons prosecution of the war, asking for the nsnal sup- 
plies, and a further augmentation of the army, etc. The House 
approved of adding ten thousand men to the army, and granted 
£7,000,000 for carrying on the government. 

The Russian ambassador having been arrested for debt, a 
statute was passed by whicii all process against an ambassador, 
or any of his domestic servants, should be null and void. 

On June 21, 1709, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene encamped on the plain before Lille with an army of one 
hundred thousand men ; they then marched on Tournay, and 
commenced the siege. The city fell in three weeks, but the 
' citadel held out nntil the end of July. Dui'ing the siege the 
allies lost four thousand killed and wounded. 

They then marched with eighty thousand men to lay siege to 
Mons, where they were met by Marshal Villars with an army of 
seventy thousand men at Malplaquet, and on the morning of 
^eptendjer llth the attack was made on the French, and after 
a most sanguinary struggle of four hours, the allies were mas- 
ters of the held, amidst thirty thousand of their fellow-men 
killed and wounded. 

In the year 1710 the popularity of Marlborough, who had 
been for eight years the idol of the queen. Parliament, and 
people, began to wane, and his duchess lost the queen's con- 
fidence. 

The Tories, who now had in tlieir ranks the ablest states- 
men, and the most effective writers, increased in power, and 
the Whigs completed their own ruin by the prosecution of 
Dr. Sacheverell for preaching in favor of the divine right of 
kings. 

Previous to the campaign of 1710 Louis made proposals for 
peace, through his agents at Gertruydenberg, but they did not 
retard the operations in the field, and Douay fell to the allied 
arms on June 26th. On August 29tli Bethune capitulated, and 
the towns of Aire and St. Tenant were taken without nmch 
dilficulty. 



iril.] ANNE. 441 

In the new elections, in 1711, the Tories were successfnl, a 
new ministry was formed in which Harley and Lord Bolinghroke 
were chiefs, and a new favorite, Mrs. Masham, the daughter of 
a London merchant, reigned at conrt. 

Marlborongh left England, March 4, 1711, to resume his com- 
mand of the allied armies in the Xetherlands. A part of his 
forces had been withdrawn to take part in a hopeless renewal 
of the war in Spain, others were sent upon an ill-concei'ted ex- 
pedition against Quebec. With his remaining forces he deter- 
mined to invest Bouchain, a strong fortress and of great impor- 
tance to the enemy, and after a long and tedious siege it fell on 
September lltli. 

The annj soon after went into winter quarters, and Marl- 
borough came home, arriving at Greenwich ]!*^ovember 17th. 

Parliament was opened by the queen in person on December 
7th. In her speech she said : " I have called you together as 
soon as the public affairs would permit, and I am glad that I can 
now tell you that, notwithstanding the arts of those who delight 
in war, both place and time are appointed for opening the 
treaty for a general peace.'' 

Marlborough spoke in the debate which ensued, and denied 
emphatically the charges his enemies had made against him, 
and which the}^ had embodied in the queen's speech. 

The new leaders of the government were not harmonious, 
and though the crown had been settled in the event of the 
queen's death without children upon the Princess Sophia of 
Hanover, granddaughter of James I., yet the queen and cour- 
tiers were occupied with intrigues to give the succession to the 
son of James II., the Chevalier St. George. 

The commissioners for examining the public accounts having 
discovered that the Duke of Marlborough had received an an- 
nual present of £5,000 from the contractors of bread to the 
army, the queen declared in council that she thought fit to dis- 
miss him from all his enqjloyments, that the matter might be 
impartially examined. 

Cardonnel, Marlborough's secretary, was expelled the House 
of ComnuMis on a similar accusation tu that against his chief. 
Robert Walpole was also expelled and committed to the Tower 



442 ANNE. [1712-13. 

Oil a cliaro;e of takino; a ljril)e of one thousand criiineas on con- 
tracts for forage made by him when Secretary at War. 

Although the conference was opened at Utrecht on January 
18tli, the allies, as usual, to(_>k the tield in the spring. The 
British forces in Flanders were now commanded by the Duke 
of Ormond, who had received instructions to avoid a battle un- 
.less he perceived a prospect of very great advantage. 

Shortly afterward he separated his troops from the army of 
the allies, and received from Louis the surrender of Dunkirk, 
which had been stipulated as the condition of a cessation of 
arms. 

After the withdrawal of the British contingents, Eugene was 
defeated by Mai'shal Villars at Denain, and several other re- 
verses followed, so that the good fortune of the allies seemed 
to have deserted them with the loss of the English. 

Meanwhile the negotiations were proceeding at Utrecht, the 
plenipotentiaries for (Ireat Britain being the Earl of Strafford 
and the Bishop of Bristol, to whom Prior, the poet, was subse- 
quently added, and a peace, known as the Peace of Utrecht, 
was at length signed on March 31, 1713, to the great joy of the 
nation. The principal articles, as between France and Great 
Britain, were, that Bonis shonld abandon the Pretender, ac- 
knowledge the queen's title and the Protestant succession ; 
should raze the tVu-titications of Dnnkirk, and should cede 
Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and St. Christopher's. 

"With regard to the general objects of the alliance, it was 
agreed that the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, and 
the Spanish Netherlands shonld be assigned to the empei'or; 
that the Duke of Savoy should possess Sicily, with the title of 
king; that Sardinia should be assigned to the Elector of 
Bavaria, with the same title ^ that the States of Holland should 
receive Namur, Charleroi, Luxemburg, Ypres, and Nieuport, in 
addition to their other possessions in Flanders, but should re- 
store Lisle and its dependencies ; and that the King of Prussia 
should exchange Orange for Upper Gneldres. Great Britain 
v/as left in possession of Gibraltar and Minorca. 

At the same time a treaty of commerce between France and 
England was also sio-ned. 



1713-14.] ANNE. 443 

Peace was not conclnded between tlie emperor and France 
until the following year bv the treaty of Ilastaclt. 

As the treaty of Utrecht was only effected after a violent 
struggle between the Whigs and Tories, its merits have gener- 
ally been viewed thronixh the medinm of party prejudice. It 
can hardly be donbted that, from the exhausted condition of 
France, more advantageous terms might have been exacted ; 
they had in fact been previously offered ; and the great object 
for which the war had been imdertaken — the exclusion of the 
Bourbons from the throne of Spain — was frustrated. 

Louis, indeed, undertook that Philip should renounce the 
throne of France, but at the same time acknowledged that such 
an act was legally invalid ; while the recent death of the dau- 
phin, of his son, and eldest grandson left only a sickly infant 
between Pliilip and the crown of France. 

The manner in which the peace was concluded was, perhaps, 
mo)'e ol)jectionabIe than the peace itself. England appeared 
selfishly to negotiate ' a clandestine treaty, and to abandon her 
allies in the midst of a campaign, leaving their towns and armies 
exposed to the fury of the enemy. 

A still worse feature was the abandonment of the Catalans, 
who still contended heroically for their freedom. Philip, in- 
deed, promised them an amnesty, but.it was not fulfilled. On 
the other hand, it may be remarked that it Avould liave been 
almost as impolitic to continue the war in order to set Charles 
upon the throne of Spain, after he had become emperor, as to 
leave it in possession of Philip ; that the Spaniards were con- 
tented with the latter for their king, and that England had no 
right to control their inclinations ; that the burden of the war, 
which had cost England neai-]y seventy millions, was chiefly 
borne by her, though she had not so direct an interest in it as 
the other powei'S ; and that, on the whole, the conditions exacted 
from France were not disadvantageous. 

It now became evident that the queen's health was fast de- 
cliiung, and the near prospect of her death animated the 
struggle between the Jacobites and the adherents of the house 
of Hanover. The Whigs urged the elector to a step which gave 
great offence to the cpieeu. Scliutz, the Hanoverian envoy, de- 



44.J: ANNE. [1714. 

iiiaiided for the Electoral Prince a writ to take liis seat in the 
House of Lords, he having lately heen created Duke of Cam- 
hridge. The queen was so enraged that she forhade Schutz to 
appear again at court, dechired that she would suffer the hist 
extremities rather than permit anv prince of the electoral 
family to reside in Eiighmd during her hfe, and wrote to the 
elector, to the Princess Sophia, and to the Electoral Prince, 
expressing her surprise at the step they had taken, and almost 
openly threatened that it might endanger their succession. 

Shortly afterward, May 28, ITl-i, the Princess Sophia died 
suddenly in the eighty-thii-d year of her age. 

Oxford and St. John, now Yisconnt Bolingbroke, who had 
long been enemies, came this year to an open ru};)ture. Each 
accused the other of being a Jacobite, and both were believed. 
Bolingbroke, in conjunction with Marlborough, laid a plot for 
the treasurer's ruin. Bolingbroke persuaded the cpieen that 
Oxfoi'd had privately forwarded the demand of a writ for the 
Electoral Prince, and on July 2Tth he was deprived of his 
office. 

Bolingbroke had triumphed over his rival and seemed on the 
point of succeeding to his power. lie was generally regarded 
as the future prime minister. Marlborough hastened from the 
continent to share in his .triumph, when all his hopes were dis- 
appointed in a moment. The agitation of this political crisis 
had a fatal effect on the queen's health ; the discharge from her 
leg, suddenly stopped, threw her into a lethargy. While she 
lay in this state the Duke of Shrewsbury, who was both Lord 
Cliamberlain and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, concerted with 
the Dukes of Argyle and Somerset a plan for defeating the 
schemes of Bolingbroke and his Jacobite confedei*ates in the 
ministry. They proposed to reconmiend to the queen the ap- 
pointment of the Duke of Shrewsbury as the fittest person to 
hli the office of Lord Treasurer, which was agi'eed to by the 
queen. They then proposed that the Privy Councillors, then in 
or about London, should be invited to attend, without distiyction 
of party. 

The council, being thus reinforced, began to provide for the 
security of the kingdom. Orders were immediately despatched 



1714.] ANNE. 445 

for several regiments to march to London, other regiments in 
the Netherlands were ordered to emhark for England, an em- 
bargo was laid on the shipping, and directions given for equip- 
ping all the ships of war that could be soonest in a condition for 
service. They sent a letter to the Elector of Elanover, telling 
him the queen's life was despaired of, the ineasiu'es they had 
taken, and requesting that he would, with all convenient speed, 
repair to Holland, where a British squadron would be waiting to 
receive and convey him to England in case of her majesty's de- 
cease. 

The queen continued in an almost insensible condition until 
August 1st, when she expired, in the forty -ninth year of her 
age and twelfth year of her reign, and was succeeded by George 
Louis, Elector of Hanover, great-grandson of James I. 

Anne was deficient in mental vigor ; she was a j^attern of 
conjugal affection and fidelity, a tender mother, a warm friend, 
an indulgent mistress, a munificent patron, a mild and merciful 
ruler, during whose reign no subject's blood was shed for treason. 

She was zealously attached to the Church of England, un- 
affectedly pious, just, charitable, and compassionate. She felt a 
mother's fondness for her people, by whom she was universally 
beloved with the warmth of affection, which even the prejudice 
of party could not abate. Li a word, if she was not the great- 
est she was certainly one of the best and most unblemished 
sovereigns that ever sat upon the throne of England, and well 
deserved the expressive though simple epithet, " of the good 
Queen Anne," the last sovereign of the house of Stuart. 

Contemporary JRulers. — France : Louis XIV. ; Emperors of 
the West: Leopold L, Joseph L, Charles YL ; Spain: Philip 
Y. ; Prussia: Frederick I., Frederick William L; Pussia: 
Peter the Great ; Austria : Francis I. 




THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 



A.D. 1714 to the present day. 



The house of Brunswick is one of the oldest families in Ger- 
many. The duchy formed part of Saxony when it was united 
by Cliarlemag'ue to the Frankish empire, and, with the other 
Saxon provinces, was governed successively hy the princes of 
the house of Saxe, Billung, Supplingenluirg, and Guelph. 

The house of Guelph was of a mixed Italian and German 
origin, and in the year 1194: the city of Brunswick was given to 
Henry the Lion, of that family. 

In 1235 the city, with its dependencies, was erected into a 
duchy, and Otho, Henry's grandson, became the first Duke of 
Brunswick, The two sons of Otho, Albert and John, reigned 
in common from the death of their father in 1252 to the year 
1207, and then divided their inheritance. John received the 



1714.] GEORGE I. 447 

city of Hanover and the Dncliy of Lnnebnrg, Albert the Duchy 
of Brunswick. They were again nnitecl and divided, and at last 
united under Ernest the Confessor, who died in 1546. From 
him the duchy descended in a direct line to Ernest Augustus, 
Duke of Brunswick-Lunehurg, and first Elector of Hanover, 
who died January 28, 1698, and was succeeded by his son, Geoige 
Louis. 

By the mari'iage of tlie Elector, Ernest Augustus, with So- 
phia, daughter of tlie Elector Palatine, Frederic V., and his wife 
Elizabeth, daughter of King James I. of England, his son 
George obtained the right to the throne of Great Britain under 
the title of George I. 

The change of the government, which commenced at the re- 
volution, may be considered completed by the accession of the 
house of Brunswick to the throne. Thenceforth the history of 
the United Kingdom is the i-ecord of what the majority of Par- 
liament wonld or would not do, and the ministers, although 
nominally servants to the crown, could never after successfully 
struggle against the majority of Parliament, and when its views 
were opposed to theirs they were obliged to resign. To meet 
this altered state of things one man among them was appointed 
Premier, or head of the Cabinet, to whom all the rest were 
bound to give their support while in office. 

George I. — A.D. 1714-1727, 

Bom at Osnabruck, May 28, 1660. 

Crowned October 20, 1714. 

Married Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the Duke of Zell, November 21, 1683. 

Issue : 
George Augustus, Prince of Wales. 
Sophia, married Frederick William, King of Prussia. 
Died at Osnabruck, June 11, 1727. 
Buried at Hanover. 

George Louis was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Elec- 
tor of ILinover, and Sophia his wife, grand-daughter of King 
James I. of England. He was born at Osnabruck on May 28, 
1660. 

In the year 1681 the prince visited England to pay his ad- 



448 GEORGE I. [1714. 

di-esses to Princess Anne, but immediately on landing he received 
liis father's orders not to proceed in tlie matter. He returned 
home, and married in the following year his cousin, Sophia 
Dorothea, daughter of the Duke of Zell, who the next year 
bore him a son, Xovendjer 1, 1083. The end of the following 
year a terrible tragedy occurred in the palace ; the Count 
Konigsmai'k suddenly disappeared, and it was said he was mur- 
dered by the prince for improper connection with the piincess. 
George had her imprisoned in the Castle of Aldhen, where she 
remained over thirty years, until her death ; but she constantly 
asserted her innocence. 

The prince served in the armies of the empire, against both 
the F]-ench and Turks, and succeeded to the Electorate of Hano- 
ver on the death of his father in 1698. 

In ITUO he led a force, in aid of the Duke of Ilolstein, 
against Denmark and Sweden, and raised the siege of Ton- 
nengen. 

He held the English alliance throughout the war of the Span- 
ish succession, and in 1707-9 commanded the imperial forces 
against the French, l)ut he did not approve of the treaty of 
Utrecht in 1713, standing out with the emperor until the peace 
at Hastadt in 1714. 

Immediately on the demise of the queen, August, 171-1, the 
Privy Council met, and the Ai'chbishop of Canterbury, the Lord 
Chancellor, and the Hanoverian minister produced three instru- 
ments, in which the elector had nominated eighteen peers to be 
added as lords justices to the seven great officers of state. They 
inmiediately ordered the elector to be proclaimed king in Eng- 
land, Scotland, and Ireland. The regency nominated the Earl 
of Dorset to carry to Hanover the intimation of his majesty's 
accession, and attend him on his journey to England, a fleet 
having previously been despatched to the llagne. 

King George, having vested the government of his Hanove- 
rian dominions in a council, headed b}^ his brother Ernest, set 
out for the Hague, where he arrived on August 31st. On Sep- 
tember 10th he embarked at Orange Polder, nnder convoy of 
an English and Dutch squadron, and on the 18th arrived at 
Greenwich, accompanied by his son, Prince George Augustus. 



1714.] GEORGE I. 449 

There lie was received by tlie Duke of Xortliuniberland, Cap- 
tain of the Life Guards, and the Lords of the Regency. 

That the new Iving sliould have been received witli acclama- 
tions when he set his foot on English soil was a matter of course, 
but his personal appearance and demeanor were not calculated 
to excite any very great enthusiasm. lie was fifty -four years 
of age, below the middle height, was shy and awkward, and 
could not speak the English language. 

His public virtues were probably little known to his new sub- 
jects. Possessing despotic power, he had governed his Plano- 
verians wisely and beneficently, and his people shed tears of 
grief when he left them. 

Lie soon sent for those of the nobility who had distinguished 
themselves by their zeal for his succession, but the Duke of 
Ormond, the Lord Chancellor, and Lord Trevor were not of the 
number. 

Xext morning, Ilarley, who had been created Earl of Oxford 
by Queen Anne, presented' himself with an air of confidence', 
as if he expected to receive some particular mark of his 
majesty's favor; but he had the mortification of remaining 
almost unnoticed. On the other hand, his majesty expressed 
uncommon regard for the Duke of Marlborough, as well as for 
all the leaders of the Whig party. 

The title of King George was recognized by France and all 
the other European Powers, both Protestant and Catholic. 

The pretender, the Chevalier St. George, had issued from 
Lorraine, on August 29th, a manifesto, in which he asserted his 
right to the throne. He had been inactive, he said, "until the 
death of the princess, our sister, of whose good intention toward 
us we could not for some time doubt, and this was the reason 
we then sat still, expecting the good effects thereof, which were 
unfortunately prevented by her deplorable death." Boling- 
broke, the chief encourager of those good intentions, was re- 
moved from his office as Secretary of State, and Lord Towns- 
hend appointed in his place, and the other great offices were 
filled by leading Whigs. Marlborough was appointed to his 
former office of Captain-General of the Artny and Master of 
tlie Ordnance. 
39 



450 GEORGE I. [1714-15. 

George liacl been accustomed to govern a small country 
throngli ministers to whom his will was law, and he now could 
not understand the complications which made the King of Eng- 
land, in many respects, the possessor of a nominal power, whilst 
the royal power was with those he called his servants. 

The coronation of the king took place on October 20, 1714, 
the peers of both parties attending the ceremony, and the Elec- 
toral Prince was created Prince of Wales. 

A new parliament was called by a singular proclamation, in 
which the king complained of the evil designs of men dis- 
affected to his succession, and he hoped his loving subjects 
would send up to Parliament the fittest persons to redress the 
present disorders, particularly those who professed attachment 
to the Protestant succession. 

The new parliament met at "Westminster on March IT, 1715. 
On the 21st the king appeared in the House of Lords, and de- 
livered to the Chancellor a written speech, which was read in 
presence of both houses. His majesty thanked his subjects for 
the firmness they had shown in defence of the Protestant suc- 
cession against all open and secret practices which had been 
used to defeat it. He observed that the pretender boasted of 
the assistance he expected in England ; that the national debt 
was surprisingly increasing ; that the branches of the revenue 
formerly granted for the support of the government was en- 
cumbered ; that tlie produce of the funds which remained 
would fall short of what was intended for maintaining the 
honor and dignity of the crown. He declared that the estab- 
lished constitution in church and state should be the rule of his 
government, and that the happiness, ease, and prosperity of his 
people should be the chief care of his life. 

After some opposition in both houses, addresses were voted 
in answer to the speech from the throne. 

The death of Louis XIY., September 1, 1715, was a great 
blow to the pretender, who was meditating an invasion of Eng- 
land. The Duke of Orleans, who now became Regeut during 
the minority of Louis XY., had different views from Louis. 
He could not, indeed, altogether reject the claims of a kinsman, 
but he was unwilling to compromise the peace with England, 



i:i5-lG.] GEORGE I. 451 

and would only promise secret assistance. Meanwhile, the Earl 
of Mar began prematurely and unadvisedly an insurrection in 
Scotland. He despatched letters to the principal gentry, invit- 
ing them to meet him at a great hunt in Aberdeenshire on 
August 27, 1715. When they assembled he exclaimed against 
the union, using other topics calculated to inflame his audience. 

On September 0th, though he had no more than sixty follow- 
ers, he raised the standard of the pretender. His force had 
swelled to five thousand men when he entered Perth on the 
2Sth. 

This insurrection created great alarm ; the habeas corpus act 
was suspended, and several noted Jacobites were arrested in 
London, Edinburgh, and other places. As the number of regu- 
lar troops in England was but small, the Dutch contingent of 
six thousand men was sent for, as stipulated by an article of 
the guarantee of succession. 

Argyle, who had been despatched to support the king's cause 
in Scotland, had at his disposal only about one thousand foot 
and five hundred horse ; yet Mar, who had no military talent, 
remained inactive. Serious symptoms of disaifection appeared 
in the northern counties, where Mr. Forster and the Earl of 
Derwentwater, hearing that orders had been issued to arrest 
them, rose in arms and proclaimed the pretender at Warkwoi'tli. 
Lord Ivenmure did the same at Moffat, and, being soon after 
joined by the Earls of Xithisdale, Wintoun, and Carnwath, 
crossed the border and joined Forster. The united force, 
amounting to five hundred or six hundred horsemen, proceeded, 
by Mar's directions, to Kelso, where, on October 22d, they were 
joined by General Mcintosh, with fourteen hundred foot. 
Edinburgh, which lay between the forces of Mcintosh and Mar, 
might easily have been taken, but no plan of campaign had 
been formed, and after a senseless march along the Cheviots, 
Mcintosh determined to proceed into Lancashire. Many of his 
men deserted, but he nevertheless entered Lancaster without 
resistance, and proceeded to Preston, where Stanhope's regi- 
ment of dragoons and a militia regiment retired on his ap- 
proach. Here he received an accession of one thousand two 
hundred men, but badly armed and disciplined, and when 



452 GEORGE I. [1716. 

General Carpenter arrived (November 13th) with nine hinidred 
cavahy, Forster surrendered ahnost without a blow. 

Among the prisoners made on this occasion were Lords Der- 
wentwater, Nitliisdale, Wintoun, Kenmure, with many mem- 
bers of old northern families. 

On the very day of this disastrous affair, a battle had been 
fought between Argyle and Mar at Sherift'muir, near Stirling. 
The former was now at the head of between three thousand 
and four thousand regular troops, wliile Mar's forces had in- 
creased to ten thousand men, but badly armed and disciplined. 
The battle was a singular one, the right wing of each army 
having defeated their opponents, but Argyle remained in pos- 
session of the field, wdiile Mar retired to Perth, and the weather 
prevented any further operations. 

The rebellion having been thus unadvisedly begun, the pre- 
tender felt himself called upon to act, whatever might be the 
issue. Tlie Duke of Ormond landed in Devonshire with about 
forty officers and men, but, finding no one willing to join him, 
returned to St. Malo. The pretender sailed from Dunkirk 
about the middle of December, in a small vessel of eight guns, 
and landed at Peterhead on the 2:2d, accompanied by only six 
o-entlemen, diso-uised as French naval officers. 

Mar immediately proceeded to pay his respects to him, and 
was created a duke. 

On January 6, 1710, the pretender made his public entry into 
Dundee on horseback, followed by a troop of three hundred 
gentlemen ; thence he proceeded to Scone, performed several 
acts of state, and appointed January 23d for his coronation. 
But James was not the man for this critical time. In person 
he was tall and thin, sparing of speech, calm and composed in 
liis behavior. Instead of encouraging his followers, he talked 
to them of his misfortunes. One of them said : " We saw 
nothing in him that looked like spirit ; he never appeared with 
cheerfulness and vigor to animate us ; our men began to despise 
him ; some asked if he could speak." 

On the advance of Argyle Perth was pronounced untenable 
by a council of the insurgent generals, and on January 30th, a 
dav of evil omen for the Stuarts, orders were issued to retreat 



1716.] GEORGE I. 



453 



1101-thward. Argyle entered Perth twelve hours after the rebels 
had quitted it. The latter proceeded to Dundee, and thence to 
Montrose, where James stole away on the evening of February 
4th, and, accompanied by Mar, embarked on board a small 
French vessel lying in the roads, while the rebel army gradu- 
ally dispersed. Such was the ignominious end of this ill-con- 
certed expedition. 

James landed at Gravelines after a passage of seven days. 

The dangers of rebellion led to the repeal of the triennial 
act, and one was passed allowing Parliament to sit for seven 
years, unless dissolved by the crown. 

The Earl of Oxford was impeached for high treason and sent 
to the Tower, for the precipitate conclusion of the treaty of 
Utrecht, and afterward Lords Ormond and Bolingbroke wei-e at- 
tainted for acting in concert with the French, and other crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

By the act of settlement the descendant of the Princess So- 
phia of Hanover who should be called to the throne of Great 
Britain was restricted from going out of the kingdom without 
the consent of Parliament. A bill was brought in to repeal 
that clause of the act, and becoming law without opposition the 
king prepared to set forth to his German dominions, July 7, 
1716. His anxiety to visit Hanover at this juncture was ex- 
tremely objectionable to his responsible advisers. There was 
a constant suspicion, during the reign of the two first Geoi-i2;es, 
that continental alliances and wars were in the interest of Han- 
over rather than in that of Great Britain, and although this 
belief was in some instances unjust, the minister had to con- 
tend against the unpopularity which it threw upon the govern- 
ment. Every minister, from Walpole to Chatham, was, in his 
turn, obliged to yield, however unwillingly, to the uniformity 
and iirnmess of mind which governed the continental policy of 
these princes. 

These repeated absences from England were no light inter- 
ruption to the tranquil progress of English affairs. They be- 
came a positive danger, when each of these kings was known to 
stand upon the worst terms with his eldest son. 
. Speaking a foreign language, surrounded by foreign mis- 



454- GEORGE I [171G-17. 

tresses and favorites, and constantly called awav to his foreign 
states, George I. never ceased to be regarded by tlie English 
people as a foreigner. 

He was imperfectly acqnainted with the character of the peo- 
ple he had been called upon to govern,- and he took no pains to 
imderstand their reasonable wishes or to conciliate their unrea- 
sonable prejudices. 

The government of the kingdom naturally fell into the hands 
of tlie ministers who represented the stronger party, and it was 
fortunate that eventually a minister obtained almost exclusive 
power who for many years kept the nation quiet, and allowed 
its growing industry to become the source of great material 
prosperity. Louis XIV. being dead, the Regent Duke of Or- 
leans was anxious to procure the alliance and support of Eng- 
land to his succession to the crown of France in the event of 
the death of Louis XV., a sickly boy, and he had warned the 
pretender to leave the territory of France. James had fallen 
into the hands of weak politicians and intriguing priests, and 
had finally settled in the Papal States. 

Owing to dissensions in the cabinet the Earl of Oxford was 
tried by his peers and acquitted. 

On ISTovember 3, 1717, the Princess of Wales was delivered 
of a prince, the ceremony of whose baptism was the cause of a 
difference between the Prince of Wales and his father. The 
former intended that his uncle, the Duke of York, should stand 
godfather. The king ordered the Duke of Newcastle to stand 
for himself. After the ceremony the king expressed his resent- 
ment, and ordered the prince to confine himself within his own 
apartments, and afterward signified his pleasure that he should 
(j^uit the palace of St. James. He retired with the princess to. 
a house belonging to the Earl of Grantham, but the children 
were detained at the palace. 

All peers and peeresses, and all privy councillors and their 
wives were given to miderstand that in case they visited the 
prince or princess they should have no access to his majesty's 
presence. 

From this time may be dated the manifestation of that na- 
tional calamity which the country had to endure during three 



1717.] GEORGE I. 455 

successive reigns — the hateful exhibition of a party, in opposi- 
tion to the government of tlie actual sovereign, gathering round 
the lieir apparent. When King George set out for Hanover in 
summer he was extremely jealous of entrusting, during his ab- 
sence, any special power or authority to the Prince of AVales, 
and the king wished to join others in commission with him. 
Lord Townshend opposed this. The king so far yielded as to 
appoint the prince guardian of the realm and lieutenant, but he 
withheld the title of regent from him, and imposed several re- 
strictions upon his administrative power. The popularity which 
the prince acquired during the king's absence was looked upon 
with fear and suspicion at Hanover. He was affable, appeared 
fond of English habits and customs, spoke the language tolera- 
bly well, and went among the people in a free and unreserved 
manner, but he was not discreet in a position where discretion 
was essential. 

The king opened a session of Parliament on February 20, 
1717. He announced that a triple alliance had been signed b'e- 
tween Great Britain and Holland with France, against Sweden 
and Russia. He also notified the House that he had directed 
papers to be laid before them which contained an account of a 
2:>rojected invasion by. the King of Sweden, and an insurrection 
in England which implicated the Swedish ambassador, and that 
he had been arrested, and the evidence of the plot found among 
his papers. 

On April 3d Stanhope, Secretary of State, asked for an addi- 
tional supply "not only to secure liis majesty's kingdoms 
against the present dangers with which they are threatened 
from Sweden, but likewise to prevent, as far as possible, the 
like fears for the future." In the debate strong objections 
were made to the motion, and the supply was only carried by a 
majority of four. 

Jealousy of the Sunderland party now led to a schism in the 
Cabinet, and Walpole and others resigned. Stanhope now be- 
came head of the government. Sunderland and Addison were 
appointed Secretaries of State and James Craggs Secretary of 
War. 

England was drawn into a short war during the summer of 



456 GEORGE L [1718-20. 

ITIS between the emperor and Spain, wlien Admiral Byng an- 
niliilated the Spanish fleet, off Cape Passaro, August lltii. 

Parliament was opened November 11, 1718. The king an- 
nounced that he had concluded terms and conditions of j)eace 
and alliance between the greatest princes of Europe, but that 
Spain liaving rejected all our amicable proposals, it became ne- 
cessary for our naval forces to check their progress. 

Stanhope took a liberal view of the religious differences 
which had so long agitated the nation, and he desired to repeal 
the act against occasional conformity, the schism act, and the 
test act, and to mitigate the penal laws against Roman Catho- 
lics. A bill was j^assed for the relief of Protestant dissenters, 
but the test act and the penal laws were not repealed, being 
defeated on a division. 

The two parliamentary sessions of 1710 were void of inte- 
rest, and only remarkable for ministerial attempts to carry a 
measnre whicii would have produced a vital change in the com- 
positioi] of the House of Lords. It was proposed to limit the 
royal power of making peers, and that the English peers should 
not be inci'oased beyond six of the present number, with the 
exception of princes of the blood. The motion was carried by 
a large majority in the House of Lords, but lost in the Com- 
mons. 

Walpole, in a speech of great force against the measure, said, 
" If this bill is passed into law, one of the most powerful incen- 
tives to virtue would be taken away, since there would be no 
arriving at honor l)ut through the winding-sheet of an old de- 
crepid lord, or the grave of an extinct noble family." 

The great event of the year 1720 was the financial enterprise 
which culminated in the South Sea Company and the legion of 
other projects, and it was calculated that the value of the stock 
of all the companies started within a year amounted at the cur- 
rent prices to £500,000,000 sterling, and a royal proclamation 
was issued against mischievous and dangerous undertakings. 

The stock of the South Sea Company rose from £100 a share 
to £1,000, and the Directors promised to pay fifty per cent, in- 
terest after Christmas for their yearly dividend. 

But the jealousy of the company, in attempting to lessen the 



1720-23.] GEORGE I. 45-^ 

number of tlieir competitors in public favor, was the prelude to 
their own fall. At their instance writs were issued, on August 
ISth, against four companies, and the officers of these, and 
others not legalized, were ordered to be prosecuted by the offi- 
cers of the crown. In a day or two the stocks of all companies 
rapidly fell, and a panic ensued. 

The £1,000 stock of the South Sea Company on August 15th 
was offered at £850 on the ISth, and at £450 thirty days after, 
and in ten days more fell to £150. The great bubble burst, 
and thousands were ruined. 

The ministry were held responsible for this great fraud, and 
it was even expected the king would abdicate. Lord Stanhope, 
replying to an attack in the House of Lords, was seized with a 
fit, and died the following day, February 5, 1721. 

Craggs, Secretary of War, died of small-pox, and Lord Sun- 
dei'land left the Treasury. 

Walpole came to the front again, supported by a House of 
Commons strongly Whig, and the entire session of the House 
was occupied with investigating affairs connected with the finan- 
cial convulsion. 

The departure of the king in the summer of 1722 upon his 
usual visit to his German dominions, was to be the signal for 
an invasion of England by the Pretender and his faithful Or- 
mond ; disbanded troops of various countries were being col- 
lected together for this enterprise. The managers of the plot 
had the folly to apply to the Regent of France for the aid of 
five thousand men, and the regent, having more respect for 
treaties than Louis XIY., informed the Bi'itish ambassador at 
Paris of the application. The vigilant Walpole was soon 
acquainted with the plan of action and the names of the actors. 
The king was advised not to go to Hanover ; a camp was 
formed in Hyde Park, and several of the conspirators were 
apprehended. 

The new parliament met on October 11, 1722, and the king 
in his speech announced the discovery of the plot and the 
ai'rest of some of the conspirators, on which the haljeas cor- 
pus act was suspended for a year, and the House of Peers was 
asked for their consent to sanction the detention in the Tower 



45S GEORGE I. [1722-25. 

of tlie Bisliop of Rocliester, Lords I^ortli and Grey, and the 
Eaii of Orrery, concerned in the conspiracy' — and they were 
afterward attainted. 

A declaration, signed James Rex, had been issued on Sep- 
tember 22, 1T22, in which James III., King of England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland, proposed that George shoidd quietly deliver 
to him the throne of those kingdoms ; when he. King James, 
would bestow upon George the title of king in his own domin- 
ions, and invite all other states to confirm it, and the British 
crown should be confirmed to him if he evei- should attain it in 
the due course of legitimate succession. This wonderful pro- 
duction was ordered by Parliament to be burnt by the connnon 
hangman. 

A patent was granted to William Wood, a proprietor and 
renter of copper mines in England, in the year 1723, enabling 
him to coin farthings and half-pennies for Ireland. This lucra- 
tive privilege was secured through the Duchess of Kendal, the 
king's mistress, and through the writings of Dean Swift the 
patent was withdrawn. 

In 1724, the " regium donum," the grant to Presbyterians 
and otlier dissenters w^as increased, and the king founded pro- 
fessorships of modern history at Oxford and Cambridge. 

Parliament met on November 12, 1724. Its principal busi- 
ness was the supplying of funds for the expenses of the ensuing 
year. But while in session, articles of impeachment were 
brought against the Lord Chancellor, the Earl of Macclesfield, 
for nuilfeasance in ofiice, for conniving at the frauds of the 
Masters in Chancery in ti-afficking with the trust money of the 
euitors, and the estates of widows and orphans. He was im- 
peached, found guilty, excluded forever from office, and fined 
£30,000. 

The foreign policy of George I. was decidedly pacific under 
the able administration of Walpole, and the nation was prosper- 
ing under the relief which peace had brought to it. The fear 
of the Pretender and of the Spanish or Swedish invasion had 
passed away, and the House of Brunswick, after ten years of 
struggle, was firmly fixed on its constitutional throne. The 
Treaty of Hanover was nuide September 3, 1725, in an engage- 



1725-27.] GEORGE I. 459 

ment between England, France, and Prussia, to hold by eacli 
other if either were attacked. 

The tables were turned since the war of the succession ; the 
old foes were fast friends, and the old friends bitter foes. 

"When the English Parliament met on January 20, 1726, the 
king announced the conclusion of his defensive treaties with 
the Kings of France and Prussia, to which other of the powers 
had been invited to accede, and the treaty was ratified by a 
large majority. 

On May 15, 1727, King George closed the session of Parlia- 
ment, preparatory to his departure for Hanover. He alluded 
to the attack on Gibraltar by the Spaniards. He had sus- 
pended, he said, his resentments under such provocation, and,' 
instead of having immediate recourse to arms, and demanding 
that assistance of his allies which they had engaged and were 
read}^ to give, he had concurred with France and the States 
General in making overtures of accommodation. Sweden had 
acceded to the treaty of Hanover, and a convention had been 
signed by Denmark ; the overtures of accommodation thus men- 
tioned had been successful. The Austrian ambassador signed, 
on May- 31st, preliminaries of peace with England, France, and 
Holland. Spain remained alone, neither prepared for war nor 
conceding to the conditions of j^eace. 

At this juncture the power of Walpole seemed to be some- 
what endangered. Bolingbroke, who had been allowed, by the 
influence of Walpole, to return to England, was about to em- 
bark at Calais at the close of his exile (when Atterbury, late 
Bishop of Rochester, landed there a banished man). He had 
beeii restored to his estates by act of Parliament in 1725, and 
was intriguing to reach once more the possession of power 
under George which he had obtained under Queen Anne. 

He had secured, by bribes and promises, the favor of the 
Duchess of Kendal, the mistress, or, according to some, the 
morganatic M'ife of the king. The duchess presented to her 
royal admirer a petition from Bolingbroke, in which he de- 
nounced Walpole as the author of every public evil. The king 
put this paper into the hands of Walpole, with his usual straight- 
forward mode of action. The ambitious statesman therein re- 



460 GEORGE I. [1737. 

quested an interview with liis sovereign, who was indisposed to 
grant a meeting. Walpole earnestly pressed it with his never- 
failing sagacity, for, as he himself said, " if this was not done, 
the clamor would be that I kept liis majesty to myself, and 
would allow none to come near him to tell him the truth." 
George told Walpole that Bolingbroke's complaints were " baga- 
telles." 

The king departed for Hanover on June 3d, accompanied by 
the Duchess of Kendal and Lord Townshend. The uidiappy 
wife of the king had died on November 13, 1726, after mdny 
schemes of escape, all of which were frustrated. 

The king landed, on June 7th, at Yaeret, Holland ; on the 
8th he proceeded on his journey; on the 9th he slept at Delden, 
on the Dutch frontier, and was again in his coach at four o'clock 
on the morning of the 10th, when a letter was thrown into his 
darriage, and on reading it he fell into a fit, from the effects of 
which he died. The letter was said to have been Maitten by his 
wife just before her death, sunnnoning him to meet her before 
the eternal tribunal to answer for his treatment of her. 

George died at midnight of June 10, 1727, in the sixty- 
seventh year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign. By 
his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Zell, he left one son, George 
Augustus, who succeeded him, and a daughter, Sophia Doro- 
thea, who was married in 170G to Frederick AVilliam I., King 
of Prussia. 

Contemporary Rulers. — -France : Louis XIY., Louis XY. ; 
Emperor of the West: Charles YI. ; Spain: Philip Y. ; Prus- 
sia : Frederick William H. ; Pussia : Peter I., Catherine. 



1727.] GEORGE II. 4.QI 



George II. — A.D. 1727-1760. 

Born at Hanover, October 30, 1683. 
Crowned, October 11, 1727. 

Married Wilhelmina, daughter of the Margrave Anspach. Issue : 
Frederick, who married Augusta, daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Gotha. 
Issue : 

George William, who ascended the throne as George III. 

Edward Augustus. 

William Henry. 

Henry Frederick. 

Augusta. 

Caroline. 
William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. 
Ann. 
Aurelia. 
Elizabeth. 
Mary. 
Louisa. 
Died, October 25, 17G0. 

George Augustlts, son of George I. and lils wife Soplna 
Dorothea, Princess of ZelJ, was bOrn in Hanover, October 30, 
1683. Little is known of his early history, except that he was 
neglected by his father, and was brought up by his grandmother. 
He visited Holland in 1699, and in 1705 married the Princess 
Wilhelmina Dorothea Caroline, daiic-hter of the Margrave of 
Brand enbra-g- Anspach, a woman of marked character and supe- 
rior talent. The following vear he was made a Peer of Eng- 
land, his title being Duke of Cambridge, with precedence over 
the peerage. 

He made the campaign of 1708, under the Duke of Marlbo- 
rough, and conducted liimself with great bravery at the battle 
of Oudenarde, having his horse shot under Inm. In the oppo- 
site ranks, and showing equal valor, was the Pretender, the son 
of James H. 

He accompanied his father to England when he ascended the 
throne, in 171-1, and was created Prince of Wales. The quarrels 
between father and son broke out soon after, and they hated 
each other cordially. The prince was preferred by his grand- 
mother, the Electress Sophia, to her own son, and he was at- 



462 GEORGE n. [1737. 

taclied to his mother's cause — two reasons that made liis fatlier 
disHke him. The king also disliked the Princess of Wales, and 
was jealous of lier popularity. 

So vindictive was his feeling, that he at one time entertained 
a proposition made by the Earl of Berkeley, to carry off the 
prince to America, there to be so disposed of as never to trouble 
his father again. 

When the prince left the Palace of St. James at the close of 
1717, the king tried to deprive him of all control over his chil- 
dren, and the niatter being referred to the judges, ten of the 
twelve decided in his favor. A sort of reconciliation was ef- 
fected, in 1720, through Walpole's influence. 

On June l-t, 1727, an express arrived from Lord Townshend 
who accompanied George I. to Hanover as Secretary of State. 
Walpole, First Lord of the Treasury, was instantly in his saddle 
on the road to Richmond where the Prince of Wales was stay- 
ing. 

The prince looked upon his father's chief adviser with suspi- 
cion and resentment. 

" I am come to acquaint your majesty with the death of your 
father," was Walpole's hasty communication. He then asked 
certain questions about the king's pleasure as to the Council 
being summoned., and as to other necessary formalities, 

" Go to Chiswick and take your directions from Sir Spencer 
Compton," was the uncourteous reply. 

Sir Spencer Conq^ton was treasurer to the Prince of Wales, 
Speaker of the House of Commons and Paymaster-in-chief of 
the army—." A plodding, lieavy fellow, with great application, 
but no talents," says Lord Hervey. 

Walpole told Compton it was clear that the king meant him 
for his minister. He professed tliat he had no desire for power 
for himself — a small office in the household would be sufficient 
to show he Avas not disgraced. The minister expectant who 
w^as " always more concerned for the manner and form in which 
a thing was to be done, than about the propriety or expediency 
of the thing itself," was charmed with the moderation of the 
man who had been the ruler of England. 

He asked Walpole to make for him a draft of a speech to be 



1737.] GEORGE II. 463 

delivered by tlie king to tlie Coiuicil, wliile he went to tlie king 
at Riclunoud. 

AVhen he returned the speech was ready, Sir Spencer made a 
copy of it, and returned to Richmond. 

One passage in the speech was objected to by the king, and 
Compton, not seeing his way to alter it, requested Walpole to 
see his Majesty and implore him to leave it as originally drawn. 

Queen Caroline, who was a firm friend of Walpole's, and a 
better judge tlian her husband of the capacities of the two men, 
watched for the proper" moment to apprise the king how preju- 
dicial it would be to his affairs not to prefer a man in whose 
own judgment his predecessor saw the fittest person to execute 
the office. • Consequently, the old ministers remained in office. 
In the meantime a Privy Council was called to meet at Leices- 
ter House, the king's residence, and M'as sworn anew. 

The king declared his firm pui-pose to preserve the constitu- 
tion in church and state, and to cultivate those alliances which 
his father had made with foreign princes. At the same time 
he took and subscribed the oath for the security of the Church 
of Scotland, as required by the act of union. Kext day he was 
proclaimed King of Great Britain. 

Parliament assembled in pursuance to an act for that purpose, 
but the king made no decided movement toward a new ministry. 
The courtiers flocked around Sir Spencer ; they got out of the 
way of Walpole. The civil list was to be settled by Parliament 
in a fortnight. The court moved to Kensington Palace, where 
the king, by the audiences that were asked, and the. offers that 
were made to him by the great men of all denominations, found 
himself, as he said, set up at auction, and every one bidding for 
his favor at the expense of the public. 

W^alpole outbid his rivals ; he proposed in Parliament that 
the entire reveime of the civil list should be settled on the king, 
being an increase of about £130,000, and that Queen Caroline 
should receive a jointure of £100,000. Xot a voice was raised 
against the proposal but that of Shippan. Walpole and his 
party remained in power ; Compton was Compensated with the 
presidency of the council and a peerage. Walpole's power was 
attributed to the influence Queen Caroline possessed over her 



4G4 GEORGE II. \_\727-'iS. 

husband. His opponents tlionglititliat the king's favorite mis- 
tress, Mrs. Howard, would be the dispenser of court favors, but 
Walpole's sagacity discovered that the power would be lodged 
in the wife, and he not only devoted himself to the queen, but 
totally abstained from even visiting Mrs. Howard. 

The time was not yet ripe for agitating the question of a dis- 
tinct provision for the eldest son of the king, independent of 
any allowance the crown might bestow upon him. 

Prince Frederick was twenty years of age, was not a resident 
of England, and had not yet l)een created Prince of Wales, and, 
unfortunately, both tlie father and mother entertained a deep- 
rooted dislike toward him. 

He arrived in England in December, 1728 ; was styled the 
Duke of Edinburgh, but was soon after created Prince of 
Wales. 

In Queen Caroline the king for ten years of his reign had 
such an adviser and friend as few sovereigns have ever been 
blessed with. She possessed the rare wisdom of governing her 
husband without appearing to govern. She never offered an 
opinion when any matter of state was discussed between the 
king and his ministers in her presence, but her opinion was ever 
certain to prevail. The queen and Walpole perfectly under- 
stood the system under which the succession of the house of 
Brunswick became less and less assailable. 

Expediency was their great principle — Let well enough alone ; 
keep the nation as much as possible at peace with its neighbors; 
abstain from asserting any prerogative that might appear to in- 
terfere with parliamentary government ; secure a majority in 
Parliament, even at the cost of pandering to the fawning and 
time-serving ; surrender even what 3'ou know to be right if the 
danger of popular clamor against a measure be greater than the 
good which it proposes to accomplish. These are not noble 
maxims of government, but the}" had beneficial results upon a 
nation that had been disturbed by so many conflicting principles 
for nearly a century. 

The foreign policy of England had ceased to be troubled with 
the dangers of insurrection or invasion for restoring the Stuart 
family. 



1728-a] GEORGE II. 4(^5 

Tlie British and French governments were now in entire 
accord. Spain, although still grumbling about Gibraltar, liad 
consented to a peace. All unsettled questions with the emperor 
and others were to be referred to a congress at Soissons. 

The coronation of King George took place at Westminster, 
October 11, 1727. 

The history of the fii'st fourteen years of George's reign is 
that of the struggle of Walpole and the opposition — the fiei'cest 
political contest unstained by blood that England has ever 
known. It commenced in 1730 by the cjuarrel of Lord Towns- 
hend and Sir Kobert Walpole, and on the resignation of the 
former, Walpole became supreme in the administration. 

Parliament met on Januarv 23, 1728, with an overwhelmino- 
majority for the ministry. 

The king in his speech from the throne stated that the diffi- 
culties which had retarded the opening of the peace congi-ess, 
he hoped, would soon be removed ; in the meantime he repre- 
sented the absolute necessity of continuing the preparations 
which had hitherto secured the nation and prevented a general 
ruptui-e in Europe. lie promised that his first care should be 
to I'educe, from time to time, the expenses of the public ser- 
vice, as often and as soon as the interest and safety of his people 
would permit. And he recommended unanimity, zeal, and de- 
spatch of the public business. 

Both Houses, in the debate upon the speech, appeared to vie 
with each other in expressions of affection to his Majesty. The 
Commons approved of all his transactions, and promised to sup- 
port him in all his undertakings, and declared they would cheer- 
fully grant whatever supplies should be wanted for the public 
service. They then voted an army of twenty-three thousand 
men, besides twelve thousand Hessians, and fifteen thousand 
seamen, and a revenue of £1,000,000, to be raised by certain 
stipulated taxes. 

A committee of Parliament iuA-estigated the condition of cer- 
tain persons wlio were prevented liolding office under former 
acts against dissenters, and secured some important reforms. 

The treaty of Seville M^as concluded between England, 
France, Spain, and Holland, which was very advantageous to 
30 



466 GEORGE IL [1T31-4. 

England, and by wliicli Sj^ain silently acqniesced in the English 
possession of Gibraltar. 

In the year 1731 the use of Latin in the' courts of law was 
discontinued, and English substituted. 

The abuses practised on prisoners in the jails of the king- 
dom were brought to light by the philanthropist Oglethorpe, 
and redressed. 

Parliament met on January 21, 1731. The king, in his 
speech, after communicating the nature of the negotiations at 
the congress, demanded such supplies as might enable him to 
act vigorously in concert with his allies, provided his endeavors 
to establish an adv-antageous peace should miscarry. The 
grants of the former year were renewed. 

The mere report of an intention to introduce a system of 
general excise caused great alarm, and the opposition that had 
been" reduced very low in the House, innnediately became 
vigorous. The battle was fought with ability and courage on 
both sides, and though in some of its stages the ministerial ma- 
jorities were sixty, they finally fell to sixteen in a House of 
Commons that had given "Walpole two hundred majority on 
other (piestions. 

The bill was withdrawn, greatly to the satisfaction of the 
people. The king was as much beaten as the minister, and 
they revenged themselves by dismissing from office or from 
sinecure places a number of distinguished noblemen who had 
been prominent in opposing the measure, one of whom was 
Lord Chesterfield. 

The last session of the Parliament chosen in 1727 was opened 
by the king on Jamiary 17, 1734. 

A new (piarrcl had now broken out in Europe upon the death 
of Augustus IL, King of Poland, and Walpole had put into the 
king's mouth, through the speech from the throne, the fol- 
lowing : 

" The war, which is now begun and carried on against the 
emperor with so much vigor by the united powers of France, 
Spain, and Sardinia, is becoming the object and the care of all 
Europe. And though I am no ways engaged in it, and liave 
had no part except by my good offices in those transactions 



1T34.] GEOR<iE II. 4.(37 

wliicli have been declared to he the principal causes and motives 
of it, I cannot sit regardless of the present events, or he uncon- 
cerned for the future consequences of a war undertaken and 
supported hy so powerful an alliance. The resolutions of the 
British Parliament in so particular a juncture are of too great 
moment not to be carefully attended to, and impatiently ex- 
pected by all, and not the least by those who will hope to take 
advantage from your determinations, whatever they will be, and 
to turn them to the prejudice of this kingdom. 

" It must therefore be thought most safe and prudent thor- 
oughly to weigh and consider all circumstances before we come 
to a Unal determination. 

" As I shall have, in all mj^ considerations upon this great and 
important affair, the strictest regard to the honor of my crown 
and to the good of ray people, and be governed by no other 
views, I can make no doubt but that I may entirely depend on 
the support and assistance of my Parliament without exposing 
myself, by any precipitate declarations, to such inconveniences as 
ought, as far as possible, to be avoided. In the meantime I am 
persuaded you will make such provisions as shall secure my king- 
dom's rights and possessions from all dangers and insults, and 
maintain the respect due to the British nation. 

" Whatever part it may, in the end, be most reasonable for us 
to act, it will, in all views, be necessary, when all Europe is pre- 
paring for arms, to put ourselves in a proper posture of defence." 

The great merit of Sir Robert Walpole in resolutely maintain- 
ing the policy of neutrality may be better appreciated from the 
circumstance that the king and queen were opposed to pacific 
views. 

George used daily to tell his minister " that it was with the 
sword alone he desired to keep the balance of Europe ; he could 
not bear the thought of growing old in peace and rusting in the 
cabinet, whilst other princes were busied in war and shining in 
the field." The queen, w^ith all her good sense, was as unman- 
ageable as the king wherever the interest of Germany and the 
honor of the empire were concerned. Her thoughts and reason- 
ings were as often German and imperial as if England had been 
out of the question. The perseverance of Walpole had its re- 



468 GEORGE IL [17S4-5. 

ward. He Avas disliked at Vienna, but before tbe end of the 
summer of 1734 George said to his minister: "I have followed 
your advice, Walpole, in keeping quiet, contrary often to my 
own opinion, and sometimes I have thought contrary even to my 
lionor, but I am convinced you advised me w^ell." 

Walpole continued firm in maintaining the neutrality of Eng- 
land in conjunction with the States General, The emperor sent 
an emissary to London to intrigue with some members of the 
opposition against the Prime Minister ; Sir Robert detected 
them, and they were obliged to depart the kingdom. Under 
the mediation of England and Holland peace was concluded in 
1735. 

The session of Parliament was closed after great wrangling be- 
tween both parties on domestic affairs, April lOth, and on the 
ISth it was dissolved, having run its course of seven years. 

A warm contest now took place throughout the land in elect- 
ing representatives for a new parliament, but the ministerial 
party predominated. 

Both houses assembled at Westminster on January 1J-, 1735. 
Onslow, the Speaker of the last House, was re-elected, and the 
leaders of both parties were the same as in the previous parlia- 
ment. 

The king, in his opening speech, after repeating the alliances 
he had made and the accommodations he had effected, observed 
tluit whilst many of the principal powei's of Europe were actu- 
ally engaged in war, Great Britain must be more or less affected 
with the consequences, and as the best-concerted measures are 
liable to uncertainty, the nation ought to be prepared against all 
events. He, therefore, expressed his hope that his good sub- 
jects would not repine at the necessary means of procuring the 
blessings of peace and universal tranquillity, or of putting him in 
a condition to act that part which it might be necessary and in- 
cumbent upon him to take. 

The House, on the motion of supply, resolved that thirty 
thousand seamen should be enq:)loyed for the service of the en- 
suing year, and that the land forces should l)e augmented to the 
nmnber of thirty thousand. These resolutions were not cai^ied 
without great disputing on the part of the opposition. 



1735-6] GEORGE 11. 4(59 

Parliament was tlien prorogued. The king announced his in- 
tention of visiting liis German dominions, and tlie qneen was 
appointed regent of the kingdom. Kothing of importance oc- 
curred during the king's absence, lie returned from Hanover 
on October 22d, and, according to Lord Ilervev, in very bad 
temper and dissatisfied with everything Englisli, his majesty 
having left a lady in Hanover, Madame Wolmoden, to whom he 
wa-ote by every post. 

Soon after his return tlie preliminaries of a general peace 
were signed at Vienna. Europe would be at rest again for four 
years. 

Parliament was opened on January 15, 1Y36. The king con- 
gratulated both houses on the prospect of a general peace in 
Europe, and told them he had already ordered a considerable re- 
duction to be made in his forces, both by land and sea, but at 
the same time observed that it would be necessary to continue 
some extra expense mitil a more perfect reconciliation should be 
established among the several powers of Europe. 

The repeal of certain clauses in the Test Act was again lost, 
as dangerous to the Established Church of England. 

The king was empowered to raise the sum of £G00,000, 
chargeable to the Sinking Fund, for the expenses of the current 
year, and to lay a duty of twenty sliillings a gallon on all spirit- 
nous liquors, and that £50 a year should be paid to his majesty 
by all persons who should vend, barter, or sell said liquors. 

A bill was also passed, after great opposition, for the relief of 
the people called Quakers. 

After a residence of some years in England, Frederick, Prince 
of Wales, who had become acquainted with the language and 
manners of the country, began to cabal against his parents, as 
George II. had caballed against his father, George 1. 

Though stubborn, he was weak and vain, and easily led by 
flatterers. He affected to patronize literature, probably because 
his father despised and neglected it, and his residence was fre- 
quented by all the men of wit and genius, especially by Boling- 
broke whose " Patriot King " was composed in anticipation of 
his future reign and as a satire on that of his father. 

He had been disappointed in a Prussian marriage in 1735, 



470 GEORGE II. [1736-7. 

and being impatient to many, lie had been told that a bride 
would be found for him in the person of the Princess Augusta 
of Saxe-Gotha. The lady arriv^ed iu England on April 25, 
173(3, and they were married two days afterward. She was 
only seventeen years of age, could not speak English and little 
Erench, but she had good sense, and in the ditReult circum- 
stances of her after-life had to exercise great prudence and saga- 
city. 

The king allowed the prince an income of £50,000 a year. 
His private counsellors, opponents of the government, advised 
his applying to Parliament for double that amount ; but the 
measure was lost, and caused the quarrel between father and 
son to become. more bitter than ever. The king wanted to turn 
him and his household out of St. James's, but Walpole per- 
suaded his majesty from that step. The prince was a favorite 
with the people, and the dislike of the king and queen to him 
made him more popular with a large number. 

The kiuii;, durins' the whole sunnner and autumn of 1737, 
had remained in Germany. The queen was little seen, as she 
lived a retired life in Kensington. People of all ranks were 
indignant at the king's Jong stay abroad ; the national ill-lmmor 
was displayed in pasquinades. 

On the gate of St. James's Palace this notice was posted: 
" Lost or strayed out of this house, a man who has left a wife 
and six children on the parish ; whoever will give any tidings 
of him to the churchwardens of this parish, so as he may be 
got again, shall receive four shillings and sixpence rewai'd. 
X. B. — This reward will not be increased, nobody judging him 
to deserve a crown " (five shillings). 

The king being indisposed in consequence of a boisterous 
passage from Holland, the Parliament was prorogued from 
January 21st to Eebruary 1st, 1737, and then the session was 
opened by commission. The Lord Chancellor, reading the 
speech from the throne, said : " With regard to foreign affairs, 
the great work of re-establishing the general tranquillity w^as 
far advanced. His majesty could not, without surprise and 
concern, observe the many attempts, can-ied on in various shapes 
and in different parts of the nation, to resist and obstruct the 



1737-8.] GEORGE II. 471 

e:;ecution of the laws, and to violate the peace of the kingdom, 
Tliis required particular attention." 

The house then went into the business of supply for the com- 
ing year, and voted ten thousand men for the navy, and con- 
tinued for the land service the number they had maintained in 
times of trancpiillity, inunbeidng eighteen thousand men. 

The revenue was raised by a land and malt tax, and reim- 
bursed by £1,000,000 granted out of the Sinking Fund. Yery 
little other business was transacted this session. 

The Princess of Wales was safely delivered of a daughter at 
St. James's Palace on July 31, 1737. The people rejoiced in 
the birth of a princess, for they said if she ever came to the 
throne it would be what they all desired, the disjoining the 
Electorate of Hanover from the crown of England, the former 
being in the male line only. 

Queen Caroline died on November 20, 1737, recommending 
her husband and children to Walpole with her last breath. 

In this year the privilege of the Lord Chamberlain to inter- 
fere with theatrical representations was made a legal power, 
and copies of all new plays had to be submitted to him for his 
approval and license. 

On June 4, 1738, the Princess of Wales was delivered of a 
son, who was christened George Augustus, and who afterward 
ascended the throne as Georo-e III. The birth of a grandson 
of George II. was an occasion of national rejoicing; it probably 
increased the king's jealousy of his son. A notice from the 
Lord Chamberhdn was published in the London Gazette that 
no visitor of the prince should be admitted to the court of St. 
James's. The opposition gathered more and more around the 
prince, and William Pitt became one of the gentlemen of his 
bedchamber. 

The opposition endeavored to have the army reduced, but 
failed. They then assailed the ministry because of its indif- 
ference to the outrages perpetrated by the Spaniards in x\mer- 
ica, and on Englishmen there trading. The arrangement made 
with Spain was unpopular, and Pitt's favor may be dated from 
his speech against it. 

The ministerial majority was greatly reduced in Parliament, 



472 GEORGE IL [173<j-41. 

but Walpole was saved by the folly of his enemies, a nmiiber 
of whom seceded. The troubles with Spain continued, and 
war was declared against that country October 19, 1739. The 
war was by no means brilliantly conducted. The English failed 
at Cartagena, in South America, and also at Santiago de Cuba, 
but Anson's cruise in the Pacific and Indian Seas was successful, 
and revived the recollections of tlie Elizabethan age. A^ernon 
took Portobello. 

The war of the Austrian succession began soon aftei-, and 
England was drawn into it. 

Parliament was approaching its natural termination under 
the septennial act, and the ministerial strength was daily 
diminishing. The king had gone to Hanover, and, without the 
knowledge of his ministers, had entered into a treaty of neu- 
trality for his German states for one year, and Walpole had to 
bear the blame of every event that appeared pregnant with 
danger. 

New elections were held, and on December 4, 17-11, the new 
parliament met, Mr. Onslow being again chosen speaker. The 
king, in his speech, owned that his endeavors for peace had not 
hitherto produced the desired effect, though he was not without 
hope, lie represented the necessity of putting the kingdom in 
such a posture of defence as would enable him to approve all 
opportunities of maintaining the liberties of Europe and defeat 
any attempts that should be made against him and his domin- 
ions. He recommended unanimity, vigor, and despatch. 

The struggle between the ministerial party and the opposi- 
tion innnediately commenced, and night after night the minis- 
terial majority dwindled away. After a great debate on Janu- 
ary 18, 1712, Walpole had only a majority of three in the 
fullest house ever known. On January 2Sth, after another 
battle, he had only a majority of one, and on February 1st he re- 
siirned the manaii;enient of the <2;overnment, nuich to the grief 
of the king, who continued to take his advice to the last days 
of his life. 

Sir liobert Walpole was soon after created Earl of Oi'ford, 
and on Mai-ch 9th a motion was made in the House for a secret 
committee to inquire into the administration of Sir Pobert Wal- 



1741-44.] GEORGE II. 47;^ 

pole during the past ten 3'ears, for wholesale corruption and 
misappropriation of the public money ; but it was not substan- 
tiated by the testimony before the committee, and no case was 
made. 

Lord Wilmington now became Premier, and Carteret Secre- 
tary of State. Success was ruinous to the opposition, which 
showed it could not administer affairs, though so eloquent in 
fault-tinding. The public were greatly disappointed, and the 
refusal of the victors to repeal the septennial act, which had 
been the object of their special indignation when out of office, 
caused nmcli dissatisfaction. 

England had now become actively engaged in the Austrian 
war, supporting the settlement called the Pragmatic Sanction, 
by which the Austrian succession devoh ed upon the late empe- 
ror's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa of Hungary, while France 
and Spain maintained the claims of Charles Albert, Elector of 
Bavaria. 

As long as England remained at peace there was little to be 
apprehended from the Pretender. The two young men who 
were called Prince of Wales and Duhe of York lived retired 
lives in Pome, but were treated l)y the papal coui't with I'oyal 
dignity. They were imperfectly educated, and knew little of 
the history or real condition of the countr^^ they were taught to 
consider as their inheritance, and from which the usurper some 
day must be driven. In 1T43 an invasion of England was pro- 
jected from France, and Charles Edward, the Pretender, was 
urged to leave Pome and repair to Paris. He was nominally 
to command an aj-my of veterans assendjled at Dunkirk, having 
the great Marshal Saxe to lead the troops, which were to dj'i\'e 
the Elector of Hanover from his usurped throne. The expedi- 
tion sailed early in the year ITiJ: from Dunkirk. A great storm 
destroyed or scattered the fleet of transports, and Admiral Sir 
John Norris, who was ready for a fight in the channel, was con- 
tent to pick np a few disabled vessels, and once more Charles 
Edward had to seclude himself till a more favorable occasion 
should arise. 

Immediately after Parliament prorogued the king left for 
Germany. An Englisli army had been previously sent to Flan- 



47-i GEORGE IL [1744-5. 

tiers, and a large German force was taken into English pay, 
■\vliicli added to the hatred against Hanover already felt in Eng- 
land. 

The king joined the allied armies at the head of forty thou- 
sand men and fought the battle of Dettingen, where he dis- 
played great courage, together with his second son, the Duke 
of Cumberland. The battle continued nearly the whole day. 
They fought desperately, and in the end the victory was com- 
plete on the part of the allies. 

On March 20, 1744, France declared war against England. 
There was now an end of that anomalous state of things, in 
which two gi-eat states were lighting against each other, not as 
principals, but as auxiliaries of the other governments. 

The death of Lord Wilmington led to Henry Pelliam's eleva- 
tion to the premiership. The king acting under the advice of 
Walpole, Carteret continued to manage foreign aifairs, and was 
much liked hy the king. The Hanoverian policy was still vig- 
orously opposed, l)ut the resolute conduct of France, the fear of 
invasion, and the revival of the Jacobite party, caused some re- 
mission of pai'ty feeling, and the adoption of sti'ong measures 
by govei'nment ; the Wliigs of all views united in their support. 

In 1745 the campaign in Flanders opened, and was long 
memorable for the display of valor of the British soldier. The 
French army, under Marshal Saxe, numbering seventy-six thou- 
sand men, had taken the field. 

To oppose him was the young Duke of Cuml)erland, under 
the tutelage of an old Austrian marshal. The united army did 
not reach fifty thousand men. In the early part of May the 
French invested Tournay, and the Duke of Cumberland ad- 
vanced with his army to meet them. On the 10th he had 
driven in the French outposts, and he issued orders for a gen- 
eral attack. On the morning of the llth the allies advanced, 
ami in five hours the engagement had become general. The 
fighting on both sides was desperate, but no victory was gained, 
yet the battle was long remembered by tlie nation as something 
which added to its military fame — not a victory, but " a soldier's 
battle," which had its own glory. 

The loss of the British was four thousand men killed, the 



1745.] . GEORGE IL 475 

Hanoverians nearly two thousand, and tlie French acknowl- 
edged a loss of seven thousand, which Nvas said to be under- 
rated. 

On July 25, iT-io, Charles Edward, the Pretender, Prince 
of Wales, landed on the west coast of Scotland with the Mar- 
quis of Tullebardine, who was attainted in 1715, and a few fol- 
lowers. Thej were soon joined by a large number of High- 
landers of eveiy rank. On August lUth tiie prince attended a 
gathering of the clans at Glenfinnan, where two thousand High- 
landers were soon assendjled. 

Tullibardine then read a declaration in the name of James 
YIIL, dated Rome, 1713, and the conniiission to his eldest son 
as regent. This declaration treated the whole contest, for the 
throne of England as a j^ersonal question between the Elector 
of Hanover and the son of James II. Officers and soldiers were 
called upon to desert the usurper's cause, and fight for the 
rightful heir to the throne. The prince then advanced on 
Perth, gathering strength as he went,. On the 17th he entered 
Edinburgh, lodging at Holyrood, and then marched southward. 
On the 21st his army attacked and defeated General Cope, at 
Preston Pans, and afterward returned to Edinburgh with exult- 
ing followers but a diminished army, and after a sojourn in that 
city of six weeks was enabled to muster double the nundjer of 
men that he lind at the battle of Preston Pans, and he there- 
fore decided on marching south, and sent agents to inft)rm his 
friends of his intention. 

We will now direct our attention to the state of affairs in 
England, the movements of the administration, the opinions of 
the Parliament, and the temper of the people under the extra- 
ordinary circumstances which had placed the capital of Scot- 
land in the possession of the Jacobites, and which rendered the 
invasion of the south an innninent danger. The king and the 
army were on the continent, and some historians assert that if, 
after the battle of Preston Pans, Charles could have pushed on 
two or three thousand men, he might have reached London 
witiiout much opposition, and succeeded in at least a temporary 
restoration, as the spirit of the people in no degree responded 
to the efforts of the government. They remained cold lookers 



^\^^Q GEORGE II. [174r,. 

on, not altogether favoring the rehellion, but httle disposed to 
fight against it. 

Pelhani was not so apprehensive of the strength or zeal of 
the enemy, as fearful of the inability and backwardness of his 
fi'iends. England, Fox thonght, would be for the first comer, 
the English and Dutch armies from Flanders, or the French 
and Spaniards. 

Horace Walpole looked on Scotland as lost. On Angust 31st 
the king arrived in London, and Parli. anient was summoned to 
meet on October ITth. Troops were arriving from Flanders, 
and were sent north, to rendezvous at Xewcastle. Several pow- 
erful chiefs in Scotland, attached to the government, were now 
exerting themselves in its defence, and the whole nation gener- 
ally n(j\v threw off their apathy, and prepared to resist the in- 
vaders. In the meantime Prince Charles had raised an army of 
five thousand men and marched south. Carlisle was invested, 
and in three days surrendered to the pretender prince. The keys 
of the city were delivered to him at Brampton by the mayor 
and aldermen, on their knees. His father was proclaimed king 
as James III., and he as regent. Leaving a small garrison at 
Carlisle he advanced to Penritii, marching on foot, in the High- 
land irai'b, at tlie head of his forces, and continued his route 
througli Lancaster and Preston to Manchester, where, on No- 
vember 20th, he established his headquarters. The inhabitants 
seemed to receive him with marks of affection. His intention 
was to continue his march into Wales, wliere he hoped to find 
a large nuud)er of adherents, but the bridges over the Mersey 
had been broken down. He then took the route to Stockport, 
Macclesfield, C'ongleton, and on December -Ith entered the 
town of Derby, in wliich his army was quartered, and where 
his fatlier was again pi-oclaimed with great solemnity. He 
was now within one hundred miles of the capital, M'hich was 
filled with terror and confusion. Wade, with the royal troops, 
remained in Yorkshire, and the Duke of Cumberland had as- 
sumed command of another army assembled in the neighbor- 
liood of Lichfield. He had marched from Stafford to Stone, so 
that the rebels, in turning ofi' from Ashbourne to Derby, had 
gained a march between him and London. 



1745-6.] GEORGE II. 4^7 

The young Pretender fonnd himself niiseraljly disappointed 
in his expectations. lie had now advanced into the middle of 
the kingdom, and, except a few who had joined him at Man- 
chester, not a soul appeared in his behalf. The Welsh took no 
steps to excite an insurrection in his favor ; the French made 
no attempt at an invasion ; his court was divided into factions ; 
the Highland chiefs began to murmur, and their clans to be 
unruly, lie saw himself, with a handful of men, henuned in 
between two considerable armies, in the middle of winter, and. 
in a country disaffected to his cause. He knew he could not 
proceed to the metropolis without hazarding a battle, and a de- 
feat would be attended with destruction to himself and his fol- 
lowers. A council of war was called and a retreat decided on, 
which was commenced on December 6th. They took the route 
by which they came, and on the 19th reached Carlisle. The army 
was greatly harassed on the road, but ultimately ari'ived, after 
great hardships and heavy loss, into Scotland, and on December 
24th reached Glasgow. After remaining a week in that city 
they marched to Stirling, where he was joined by Lord Stratli- 
allan and a numerous force. His army now numbered nine 
thousand men. 

On Januaiy 17, 1746, was fought the battle of Falkirk, the 
royalists being conmianded by General Ilawley. Both armies 
believed themselves defeated, and at one time were rumiing off 
the field in different directions ; but on the whole the rebels 
claimed a victory. 

The Duke of Cumberland now took com.mand of the royalist 
army in Scotland, and on January 31, 1746, began his success- 
ful march which ended all the Pretender's hopes by the total 
defeat of the rebel army at the battle of Culloden, April 17, 
1746. From that time he is hunted from place to place, some- 
times lurking in caves, and rowed in fishers' boats from isle to 
isle, among the Hebrides ; at times in woman's attire, exposed 
to hunger, thirst, and weariness; he was obliged to trust Ins 
life to the fidelity of over fifty persons, and many of these were 
of the humblest walks of life ; they knew that the price of 
£30.000 was placed upon his head, a sum that would have made 
them rich for life, but not one betrayed him, all ministered to 



4Y8 GEORGE II. [1740-50, 

his necessities. At length a Frencli privateer, liirecl hj some 
of his friends, appeared on the coast, and on Septeniljer 2(»tli 
he safely embarked, and after a dangerous passage landed on 
the coast of Bretagne, accompanied by Cameron of Lochiel, and 
a few other exiles. From this time dates the extinction of the 
Stuart party. 

The rest of the war was inglorious, and it was terminated by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oetobei", 1748. The only gainer 
by it was the King of Prussia, who secured Silesia. The article 
for the mutual restitution of all conquests was very unpopular 
in England, and the more so that Fi-ance demanded and ob- 
tained two hostages for the delivery of Cape Breton. The 
Earl of Sussex and Lord Cathcart were sent to Paris in that 
capacity. 

By one of the articles of this treaty the French court under- 
took to expel the Pretender from France, and they offered him 
an establishment at Fribui'g in Switzerland, with a guai;d and 
title of Prince of Wales ; but Charles regarding such a course 
as a mean com})liance with orders from Hanover, obstinately 
refused to quit Paris, At length it became necessary to use 
force, he was seized and conveyed to the frontiers of Savoy, and 
there abandoned to his lonely wandei'ings. 

He appears to have nt)W visited Venice and Germany, to 
have resided some time secretly in Paris, and even to have paid 
two visits to England. After the death of his father, James, in 
ITGO, he returned to Pome, and in his latter years fell into 
habits of drunkenness. In 1772. at the age of fifty-two, he 
married the Princess Louisa of Stolberg, a girl of twenty. They 
subsequently lived at Florence under the title of the Count and 
Countess of All)any, but the union was unhappy, he was harsh, 
and she was unfaithful; in 1780 she eloped with Alfieri, the 
dramatic poet. Charles died at Rome, Januai-y 30, 1788. 

One of the results of the war was the founding of Halifax in 
Nova Scotia, named after the Earl of Halifax, President of the 
Board of Trade. To relieve the great number of dischai-ged 
soldiers and sailors, they were encouraged to emigrate l)y a 
grant of fifty acres to each, a free passage, and inmnmit}' from 
taxes for a period of ten years. 



1751-54.] GEORGE IL 479 

For some years after the peace notliing of importance occur- 
red. On March 20, 1751, Frederick, Prince of Wales, expired, 
an event wliich from his weak and fickle character did not oc- 
casion nmch regret; he left eight children, and his consort preg- 
nant with another. George, his eldest son, was now created 
Prince of Wales ; and as he was onl j twelve years of age, while 
the king was sixty-seven, it became necessary to appoint a re- 
gency in the event of a demise of the crown before the prince 
should attain his majority. After a considerable debate, a bill 
was passed, appointing his mother, the Dowager-Princess of 
Wales, guardian of his person, and i-egent of the kingdom ; but 
subject, in the latter capacity, to the control of the council, 
composed of the Duke of Cumberland and the nine principal 
officers of state at the time of the king's death. 

In this year (1751) the change in the calendar was effected 
by act of Parliament, providing that the year should commence 
on tlie first day of January instead of tlie twenty-fifth day of 
March, and eleven days in September, 1752, were to be nominally 
dropped, in order to bring the calendar into unison with the 
actual state of the solar year. The great body of the people 
regarded the reform as impious and a popish measure. Sweden 
followed England, in 1753, but Kussia and those countries be- 
longing to the Greek Church still follow the old style. 

A bill for the naturalization of the Jews was passed in 1753, 
and is thought to have been one of the most creditable acts of 
English legislation, but it caused so much popular excitement, 
that it had to be repealed. 

The marriage act, passed the same year, was almost as un- 
popular ; it obliged the publication of banns in a parish church, 
and the ceremony to be performed there. 

The Prime Minister, Mr. Pelham, died March 3, 175-1; he 
was succeeded by the Duke of iS^ewcastle, who found himself 
compelled to share power .with Henry Fox, as leader in the 
House of Commons. 

Events were now maturing which rendered it necessary and 
important that England should have a firm and capable govern- 
ment. On March 25, 1755, the king sent a message to both 
Houses to acquaint them, " That the present situation of affairs 



4S0 GEORGE II. [1754-5. 

makes it necessary to augment my forces by sea and land, and 
to take sucli measures as may best tend to preserve the general 
peace of Europe, and to secure the just rights and possessions 
of my crown in America." 

Quarrels had long prevailed, both in the East Indies and in 
IS^orth America, between the French and English settlers, which 
threatened to produce hostilities between the mother countries, 
as well as perpetual disputes as to the boundaries and alleged 
rights out of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

A large French armament, equipped at Brest, was watched 
by Admiral Boscawen, who had orders to attack them in case 
their destination should be the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; two Eng- 
lish vessels had captured two French ones off Jsewfoundland. 

Althouo-h no formal declaration of war had been made. Gen- 
eral Braddock, with a body of English troops, was sent to succor 
the colonists in Virginia. He mai-ched against the French fort 
on the Ohio River, taking Colonel Washington and some Amer- 
ican militia with him. In a valley between two woods, within 
ten miles of Fort Duquesne — utterly neglecting all precautions 
against surprise — the English general fell into an ambuscade of 
Indians ; a few French only encountered him, but the unerring 
marksmen of the woods picked off his officers, and Braddock 
himself was mortally wounded. Half his troops fled in con- 
fusion and abandoned their artillery; the other half w^ere killed 
and wounded, and the terrible scalping-knife left few to tell the 
tale of their fatal reverse. 

During this sunnner the king was in Hanover, and the regency 
were undecided about declaring war. Some were for immediate 
hostilities, some for delaying them, and the time was passing 
for any sudden and decisive blow. The king had left the 
regency to take care of the great national interests of Britain 
while he was looking after continental affairs, subsidizing auxil- 
iary powers for the protection of his own Hanover. 

Whilst the English and French were fighting in the wilds of 
America, their ships were engaged in the Atlantic, and several 
battles had been fought and French ships captured. And as the 
war had in a measure begun, his majesty at last thought proper 
to return to England, where he arrived on September 15, 1755. 



1755-G.] GEORGE II. 4gj^ 

Parliament met on Xovember 13tli. The king, in his speech, 
declared that all proper measures had been taken to pi-otect onr 
possessions in America, and to regain such parts thereof as had 
been encroached upon, or invaded ; that to preserve his people 
from the calamities of war, as well as to prevent a general war 
from being lighted up in Europe, he had always been ready to 
accept reasonable and honorable terms of accommodation, but 
that none such had been proposed by Fi-ance ; that he had also 
contined his views and operations to hinder France from making 
new encroachments, or supporting those already made ; to exert 
his people's rights to a satisfaction for hostilities committed in 
time of profound peace, and to disappoint such designs as, from 
various preparations, there was reason to think had been formed 
against his kingdoms ; that the King of Spain earnestly wished 
the preservation of the public tranquillity ; that he himself had 
greatly increased his naval armaments and augmented his land 
foi'ces ; and, finally, that he had concluded a treaty wdtli the 
Empress of Russia, and another with the Landgrave of Hesse 
Cassel, which should be laid before them. 

The address from the Commons said, " We think ourselves 
bound in justice and gratitude to assist his majesty against in- 
sults and attacks that may be made against any of his majesty's 
dominions, though not belonging to the ci'owai of Great Brit- 
ain." They then proceeded to provide for the service of the 
ensuing year : fifty thousand seaman were voted for the navy ; 
thirty -five thousand soldiers for the army, and £2,000,000 for 
their maintenance. £100,000 was voted as a subsidy to the 
Empress of Russia, and £55,000 to the Landgrave of Llesse. 

The earthquake in Lisbon was announced to Parliament by a 
message from the king, asking the House to send speedy and 
effectual j-elief in so pressing an exigency. 

Li closing the session of Parliament, on May 2T, 1756, the 
king announced, that owing to the injuries his subjects had sus- 
tained from the French by the invasion of Minorca, he had for- 
mally declared war against France. 

The Duke of iSTewcastle could not be persuaded, until too late, 
of the designs of the French ; lie neglected all necessary pre- 
cautions, and then he sent out in a hurry ten ships, badly 
31 



482 GEORGE II. [1756-7. 

equipped, under Admiral Byng. On April 18, 1T5G, a French 
fleet of twelve ships of the line, and a large number of trans- 
ports, having sixteen thousand troops on board, appeared off 
Minorca, and threatened Mahon. The castle of St. Philip, 
which commands the town and harbor, was a strong fortress, 
but the garrison had been reduced to three thousand men, and 
Lord Trelawnev, the governor, as well as a great many officers, 
was absent. Tlie defence of the place therefore fell upon Gen- 
eral Blakeney, a brave officer, but old and invalided. 

When Byng hove in sight off St. Philip's, on May 19th, the 
British flag was still flying there. On the following day, the 
French admii-al, De la Galissoniere, bore down with his whole 
force. Byng ranged his ships in line of battle ; and Admiral 
West, the second in command, engaged with his division, and 
dispersed the ships opposed to him ; but Byng kept aloof. 

On the followino; mornino; the French were out of sight. 
Byng then called a council of war, expressed his determination 
to retreat, as his force was so inferior to that of the enemy, and 
sailing to Gibraltar, left Minorca to its fate. 

Nevertheless, St. Philip's held out till June 27th, when, some 
of the outworks having been carried, the garrison were obliged 
to capitulate, but marched out with the honors of war, and, in 
conformity with the terms, wei-e conveyed to Gibraltar. 

At this loss the popular indignation in England was uncon- 
trollable. The cry was loud against the ministry, but louder 
still against Byng. Eithei" treacheiy or cowardice was univei*- 
sally imputed to him, and he was burnt in effigy in all the prin- 
cipal towns of the kingdom. 

The Duke of Newcastle was willing to make Byng the scape- 
goat. Admiral Sn- Edward llawke was sent out to supersede 
him, and to send home both him and West as prisoners. West 
■was immediately liberated, but a court martial was held on 
Byng in the following December, at Portsmouth, by which he 
was acquitted of cowardice or treachery, but condenmed, by the 
12tli Article of War, of not having done all in his power to 
relieve St. Philip's, and defeat the French fleet. At the same 
time he was recommended to mercy. But the popular clamor 
was too great to allow this recommendation to prevail. He was 



1757.] GEORGE II. 433 

shot on tlie qnarter-cleck of li. M. S. Monarqiie., March 14, 
1757, and met his fate with courage. 

On June 4, 1756, George, Prince of Wales, completed his 
eighteenth year. The king wished to give the prince a sepa- 
i-ate estahlisliment, with an allowance of £1:(),000 a year, and 
remove him from the control of his mother, the Princess Dow- 
ager. The prince earnestly entreated the king not to separate 
him from his mother, although he was deeply grateful for the 
proposed royal bounty. 

Owing to the unpopularity of the ministry, incurred by the 
national disgraces, the Duke of Newcastle and Fox were com- 
pelled to resign, and the king was now reluctantly obliged to 
have recourse to Pitt, who was beginning to be the great 
leader in the C^ommons. lie held the seal as Secretary of State 
only a few months, when the Dulce of Cumberland persuaded 
the king to dismiss- him, and recall Newcastle. The latter 
nobleman, however, found it impossible to form a ministry 
without Pitt's assistance. The nation was in a ferment at liis 
dismissal, and most of the principal towns in the kingdom sent 
him their freedom in gold boxes. The king, after vain attempts 
to form a ministry with Fox and Lord Waldegrave, was at 
length obliged to submit to Pitt's terms. Newcastle returned 
to the treasury, but without one of his own party at the board, 
and with Leggc as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Pitt became 
Secretary of State, and Temple, Privy Seal. Thus was Pitt's 
first cabinet formed, June 29, 1757. 

Frederick, King of Prussia, now drew closer his alliance with 
England, and tlie Duke of Cumberland proceeded to the conti- 
nent to fight in his cause and to defend the electorate. Freder- 
ick had made an incursion into Bohemia and gained a victory 
near Prague, but he was in turn defeated at the heights of 
Kolin and obliged to retire. The French, advancing with a 
large army, compelled the Duke of Cumberland to retreat before 
them, and they overran all Hanover. 

The duke took refuge under the guns of Stade, and supported 
by those of four British men-of-war in the Elbe ; but he was 
manoeuvred out of his position by the Duke of Pichelieu, the 
French general, and was compelled to enter into the convention 



4SJ: GEORGE II. [1757-S. 

of Kloster Seven, by which lie agreed to dismiss his auxiliaries, 
to withdraw his troops over the Elbe and disperse them in can- 
tonments, leaving only a garrison in Stade. Thus Hanover was 
lost. George II. was as indignant at this failure as Frederick 
himself, and received his son (Cumberland) with the greatest 
coldness. 

Offended by this treatment Cumberland tlii-ew up all his em- 
ployments and lived in comparative obscurity until 1T65, when 
he died at the age of forty-live. Frederick seemed reduced to 
the last extremity, but he recovered his aifairs by the victories 
of Ilossbacli and Leuthen. This success made him very popular 
in England, where he was regarded as the Protestant hero. 

The new parliament was opened December 2, 1757. Xever 
was a vital change of policy moi'e boldly indicated. The speech 
from the throne declared that the succor and preservation of 
America demanded resolution, vigor, and despatch ; that for a 
sure defence at home a national militia may in time become one 
good resource. " Helying with pleasure on the spirit and zeal 
of my people," said the king, " the body of my electoral troops, 
which I ordered hither at the desire of my Parliament, I have 
directed to return to my German dominions." 

To trust to the British people for the defence of their coun- 
try, instead of trusting to Hanoverians and Hessians, and to re- 
commend a militia, which his majesty always ridiculed, were 
indeed evidences of a new state of affairs. 

The electoral troops were accordingly sent home and a militia 
bill passed, though a similar bill had been rejected in the pre- 
vious session. Under this act thirty-two thousand men were to 
be called out in England and Wales, and the regular army was 
increased to forty -iive thousand men. Two Highland regiments 
were raised ; one was given to Simon Frazer, son of Lord Lovat, 
and the other to Archibald Montgomery, brother to Lord Eg- 
lington. 

In 1758 the war raged in all quarters of the world. In Africa 
the island of Gorea was wrested f i-om the French, and Pitt pro- 
jected the conquest of Cape Breton. 

Whilst England was lying under the dread of a foreign inva- 
sion great events were taking place in the distant settlement of 



i:5S-0.] GEORGE H. 4S5 

the East India Company, and the success of Lord Clive laid tlie 
foundation of the Indian empire. 

Ample subsidies were forwarded to Frederick of Prussia, so 
that he was enabled to make head against the coalition formed 
for his overthrow. 

Pitt recalled General Loudoun from the command of the x\m- 
erican expedition, and General Amherst was despatched to re- 
place him, with AV^olfe as second in command, and a tieet, com- 
manded by Admiral Saunders, was to co-operate. 

On June 3, 1758, a fleet of one hundred and flfty ships, bear- 
ing twelve thousand troops, appeared off Louisburg ; the soldiei-s 
were conveyed to the shore in boats, and AVolfe was the iirst to 
land. lie led his men to the attack on the French, who were 
drawn up to oppose their landing. The defences were very 
strong, and it was the end of July before the place capitulated, 
with six thousand prisoners of war. Cape Breton once more 
formed part of the British dominions. The French fleet in the 
harbor was utterly destroyed. 

The year 1759 was one of the most memorable years in the 
history of Britain. An army of English and Germans defeated 
the French at Minden, Crefeld, and other places on the conti- 
nent, but the chief success that year was achieved in Canada. 
The French had colonized that province in the reign of Francis 
L, but it was not till the following century that the cities of 
Quebec and Montreal arose. Pitt's plan of invasion was by 
three separate columns to unite at Quebec. One of these, com- 
posed of colonists and Indians, under General Prideaux and Sir 
William Johnson, was to advance to Oswego, on Lake Ontario, 
and after reducing Fort Niagara on the Niagara Pivei-, proceed 
down the lake and the St. Lawrence to Montreal ; another, of 
eight thousand men, under the command of General Wolfe, was 
to proceed up the St. Lawrence and lay siege to Quebec, while 
in the centre the main army, under General Amherst, was to 
attack Ticonderoga, secure the navigation of Lake Champlain, 
and, proceeding by the River Pichelieu, to form a junction with 
AVolfe. 

The flrst and last of these expeditions succeeded as far as they 
Avent ; Niagara and Ticonderoga were captured, but it was too 



4S6 GEORGE II. [1759. 

late in tlie season to form a junction M'ith Wolfe. The fleet 
carried AVolfe safely to the island of Orleans, below Quebec, 
whei-e the army disembarked June 27, 1750. Wolfe formed a 
camp on the westernmost point of the island, where Quebec rose 
on his view, strong in its natural position, but without artilicial 
defences. Quebec at that time contained a population of about 
seven thousand. The Marquis de Montcalm, the French Gover- 
nor of Canada, lay Avith an army of ten thousand men outside 
the city, in a strong position. All Wolfe's attempts to draw 
him from that position having failed, it only remained for him 
to attack him in his intrenchments. An assault on July 31st 
liaving been repulsed, Wolfe determined on the hazardous ex- 
ploit of proceeding up the St. Lawrence and scaling the heights 
of Abraham, though through deaths, sickness, and the necessary 
detachments for securing important points, he could nnister 
only about three thousand six hundred men. On tiie night of 
Septendjer 13th the army was conveyed silently up the river in 
boats to a small cove, now called Wolfe's C^o\-e, overhung by 
lofty rocks. Wolfe himself was one of the flrst to leap on 
shore. The precipitous path was climbed, an outpost of the 
enemy fled in alarm, and at daylight the Eritish army stood 
arrayed upon the heights, without cavalry, and iiaving only a sin- 
gle gun. 

Montcalm was now obliged to abandon his position and ad- 
vance to give battle. The English, by Wolfe's direction, re- 
served their fii'e till the enemy was within forty yards, and 
then delivered a well-directed and destructive volley. Many 
fell ; the rest wavered. Wolfe, though wounded, seized the 
favorable moment and sprang forward, ordering his grenadiers 
to charge. At this instant he was struck by another ball in the 
groin, and shortly after by a third in the breast, which caused 
him to fall, and he Avas conveyed to the rear. Before he 
breathed his last an officer who was standing l)y exclaimed : 
'^ See how they run!" "Who run T' eagerly cried Wolfe. 
" The enemy," cried the officer. *• Then God be praised ! " said 
Wolfe ; " I shall die happy," and inunediately expired. Thus 
fell this gallant officer at the early age of thirty-thi'ce. 

Montcalm, the French commander, was also slain. Quebec 



17^9-60.] GEORGE II. 4S7 

capitulated on September IS, 1759 ; the French garrison M'as 
conveyed, by agreement, to the nearest French port, and in the 
following year the conquest of all Canada was completed, and 
Fort Daquesne, the original cause of the war, was surrendered. 
Its name was changed to Pittsburg, after Pitt, the Prime Min- 
ister. 

Pai'liament was opened by commission November 13, 1759. 
Peace was talked of, but it was urged that such supplies should 
be granted as would enable his majesty to sustain and press 
with effect all our extensive operations against the euemy, and 
in the course of the session £15,500,000 was voted for the ex- 
penses of the government. 

The 3'ear 1760 was not a year of political excitement to the 
English people. The war on the continent \vent on ; the de- 
fence of the conquests of the former year required no great 
exertions. There was little domestic agitation except a minis- 
terial difference with the court, and Parliament had little more 
to do than vote supplies, when a sudden event came, which, in a 
short time, changed the whole aspect of affairs. The reign of 
George 11. came suddenly to a close by the bursting of the right 
ventricle of his heart, October 25, 1760. He died in the 
seventy-seventh year of . his age and the thirty-third of his 
reign. He was succeeded by his grandson, George AVilliam 
Frederick. 

Contemporary Hulers. — France : Louis XY. ; Emperors of 
the West : Charles VIL, Francis I. ; Spain : Philip Y., Fer- 
dinand YL, Charles HI. ; Russia : Catherine, Peter II., Anne, 
John YL, Elizabeth ; Prussia : Frederick II. (Frederick the 
Great). 



488 GEORGE III. [1760. 



George III. — A.D. 1760-1820. 

Bom June 4, 1738, in London. 

Crowned, September 22, ITUl. 

Married, September 8, ITGl, Charlotte, daughter of the Duke of Mecklenburg 
Strelitz. Issue : 

George Augustus Frederick, afterward George IV. 

Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. 

William Henry, Duke of Clarence, afterward William IV. 

Edward, Duke of Kent ; married, May 29, 1818, Victoria Maria Louisa, daugh- 
ter of Duke of Cobnrg-Saalfleld, and widow of Prince of Leinengen. Issue : 
Alexandrina Victoria, born May 24, 1819, who became the empress- 
queen, Victoria I. 

Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, afterward King of Hanover. 

Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex. 

Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Cambridge. . 

Octavius ; died young. 

Alfred ; died young. 

Charlotte. 

Augusta. 

Elizabeth. 

Mary. 

Sophia. 

Amelia. 

George III. died at Windsor, January 29, 1820. 

George William Frederick, son of Frederick, Prince of 
Wales, and his wife, the Pi'incess Angusta of Saxe Coburg, was 
born in "London, June 4, 173S. 

He was the first Hanoverian king born and educated in Eng- 
land. He was not likely to be well educated at the court of 
his father, nor did the death of that parent improve his pros- 
pects in that way. His mother confined his early associations 
to a small circle, wishing to preserve him from the profligacy 
of the day, in which she was successful ; but he was brought 
np more as a prince of the House of Stuart might have been 
than the heir apparent of a constitutional monarchy. 

His disposition was arbitrary and crafty, and his character 
full of cool dissimulation. 

On the death of his father, March 20, 1751, he was created 
Prince of AVales, and his education was provided for by the 
king by the appointment of a governor, a preceptor, and a. 



1760.] GEORGE III. 4S9 

depntj-preceptor, and an act of Pai'lianient was passed, " tliat, 
in the event of the demise of tlie crown before the Prince of 
Wales attained tlie age of eighteen years, his mother shonld be 
guardian of his person, but, as regent of the kingdom, she 
should act by and with the advice of a council composed of the 
Duke of Cumberland and nine principal officers of the state." 

The princess, his mother, had withdrawn him from the 
hands of the distinguished men whom the king had given liim 
as governors, and intrusted him to sul)-preceptors of her own 
choosing. Her constant friend and adviser was Lord Bute, who 
had thereby acquired the greatest influence over the youug 
prince, and it was understood that henceforth his advice would 
chiefly regulate the polic}' of the crown. 

On October 25, 1760, news was brought to the Prince of 
Wales that his grandfathei- was dead. It was an event which 
must have been some time expected, and the prince and his 
friends were prepared for it. 

A meetiug of the Privy Council was held, and after the cus- 
tomary oaths were taken, the kiug delivered an address which 
had been prepared by Lord Bute, and the late ministry were 
continued in oflice. The king was then proclaimed in the usual 
form. 

The Earl of Bute was made a Cabinet Minister, Privy Coun- 
cillor, and Groom of the Stole. 

On ]^ovember 18, 1760, the king opened Parliament. Lord 
Hardwicke prepared the speech, of which he sent a draft to Mr. 
Pitt. The king had inserted in his own handwriting, which 
was long treasured up in loyal memories : " Born and educated 
in this country, I glory in the name of Briton ; and the pecu- 
liar liappiness of my life will ever consist in promoting the wel- 
fare of a people whose loyalty and warm affection to me I 
consider as the greatest and most permanent security to my 
throne." 

The Llouse of Commons v^oted a civil list of £800,000 upon 
the king surrendering the hereditary revenue. The annual 
subsidy to the King of Prussia was renewed, and supplies were 
granted to the extent of £20,000,000. 

The enthusiasm with which the king was greeted by liis sub- 



490 GEORGE III. [1760-1. 

jects was in striking contrast with tlie coldness tliat had at- 
tended the appearance of Geoi-g-e 11. 

Tlie behavior of the young king was at first all that could be 
desired. In his family relations he was nearly always respect- 
able, lie still added to his popularity by directing a change in 
the law with regard to the judges, so that their connnissions no 
longer terminated with the death of the king ; they hencefor- 
ward held thei]' appointments for life, nuless deprived of them 
by the joint action of the two Houses of Pai'liament. They 
were thus rendered absolutely independent of the crown. 

On March 21, 1761, Parliament was dissolved by proclama- 
tion, and indications of changes in the government were fore- 
shadowed. 

Tlie Duke of Newcastle, who had kept all patronage in his 
hands, now found places filled without his knowledge. When 
he complained he M'as met by the uniform answer, " that it was 
the king's desire ; " and Bute openly rebuked Lord Anson for 
filling the admii'alty borouglis without consulting the king. 
Shortly after the dissolution of Parliament there was a change 
in certain members of tlie cabinet. Pegge gave place as Chan- 
cellor of the Excliequer to L(»rd Parrington ; Charles Towns- 
Lend became Secretary at Wai", and Dash wood, another follower 
of Bute, took the place that Townshend vacated, and Bute was 
made one of. the Secretaries of State, in the place of Lord 
Ilolderness. 

On Septeml)er S, 1701, George married the Princess Char- 
lotte Sophia, sister of the Duke of Meckleulnirg Strelitz, who 
shared his throne for fifty-seven years, and bore him fifteen 
children. All but two of them grew up. She was described as 
sensible, cheerful, remarkably genteel, with quick capacity, and 
good judgment, and with a kindly nature, often breaking 
through the restraints of courth' etiquette. 

The coronation of the king and queen took place on Septem- 
ber 22, 1761, without much ceremony. 

The negotiations for peace with Prance were at an end, and 
a more extended war was imminent; a family compact was 
being formed between France and Spain, and Pitt was iov an- 
ticipating their arrangements by commencing the war, but was 



1701-3.] GEORGE III. 491 

overruled in the cabinet. lie resigned his office on October 5, 
1761, but the future showed the wisdom of his advice, foi- the 
conduct of Spain was such that England was compelled to de- 
clare war against her, January 4, 1TG2. This war was a series 
of successes on the part of England ; Havana was captured, 
with a large part of the Island of Cuba ; the Phili})pines wei-c 
reduced ; treasure-ships of innnense value were taken from the 
Spaniards, and the naval and colonial supremacy of England was 
established. 

Already the impossibility of Bute's peaceful view was demon- 
strated, but he none the less prevented the payment of the 
Prussian subsidy, although this looked very much like a breach 
of faith. ' 

This change of policy afforded Newcastle tlie opportunity of 
leaving the ministry with dignity ; he was conscious tliat sooner 
or later he would be got rid of. On his resignation Bute at 
once named himself Prime Minister, and proceeded to carry 
out, in some points at least, his favorite principles. These were 
peace at almost any price, the abandonment of continental con- 
nections, the increase and restoration of the power of the crown 
and government w^ithout bribery. But these aspirations degen- 
erated in practice into a war, which was successful, owing to his 
predecessor's arrangements, a vindictive assault upon the Wliig 
party, and the most shameless corruption ever practised in 
England. The expeditions which Pitt had planned were car- 
ried out. 

But Bute, in his eagerness for peace, did not even wait to 
hear the result of the expeditions, but at once reopened peace 
negotiations with France, and on February 10, 1763, the peace 
was signed at Fontainebleau. The conditions were nuich the 
same as the preceding year. 

America passed wholly to the English, the French keeping 
the right of fishing on the coast of Newfoundland. England 
kept Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, and Granada, and restored 
Martinique and St. Lucia. Minorca and Belleisle were to be 
exchanged. The French evacuated their conquests in Ger- 
many, Gorea was restored to France, and the English army 
evacuated Germany. 



492 GEORGE in. tl"63. 

In India tlie Frencli were to have no military establishments ; 
their factories were restored to them, but they could never re- 
cover their lost influence in that country, and soon after their 
East India Company was dissolved. The courage and genius 
of Clive had now converted an association of traders into the 
rulers of a large and magnificent empire. Though established 
in the latter part of Elizabeth's reign, it was not till the time 
of Charles 11. that the East India Company made any advances 
in wealth and power. Charles granted them a new charter, 
conveying many exclusive rights and privileges, and also ceded 
to them the settlement of Bombay, which he had received as a 
mari'iage portion with Catherine of Braganza. Fort St. George 
and the town of Madras had already been founded on the Car- 
natic. The first English factories were at Bantam and Surat, 
but these were afterward abandoned. At the time of the Bevo- 
lution, a new company was formed, the rivalship of which pro- 
duced great mischief till, in 1Y02, they were both united. 

Before the accession of the House of Hanover, the three 
presidencies of Madras (Fort George), Calcutta (Fort William), 
and Bombay had already been erected, but no central govern- 
ment yet existed. These settlements had but little territory 
attached to them, and often trembled for their own safety. 

The French, who had established an East India Company in 
tlie reign of Louis XIY., were the only formidable rivals the 
Enirlish had in India. The Portuguese were their allies, and 
their power was but small ; the Dutch chiefly confined their 
attention to Java and the neighboring islands. The French 
had two important settlements : Chandernagore, on the Iloogly, 
higher up than Fort William, and Pondicherry, on the coast 
of the Carnatic, about eighty miles south of Madras. 

They also possessed two fertile islands in the Indian Ocean, 
the Isle of Bourl^on and the Mauritius, or the Isle of France. 
The wars of the mother coimtries extended to these colonies. 
In 1TI6, the French, under La Bourdonnais, took Madras; and 
Duplex, Governor of Pondicherry, in violation of the capitula- 
tion, carried the principal inhabitants to that towai, and paraded 
them through the streets in triumph. Madras was restored at 
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 



1763.] GEORGE in. 493 

In 1755, Cliv^e returned to India with tlie rank of lieutenant- 
colonel in the king's service, and the appointment from the 
East India Company as governor of Fort St. David. His abil- 
ities were soon called into action. The Surajah Dowlah, Vice- 
roy of Bengal, had taken Calcutta, and thrust the English in- 
habitants, to the. number of one hundred and forty-six, into a 
small and loathsome dungeon known as the Black Hole, where 
in one night (June 20, 1756), the greater part of them were 
stifled. But a signal vengeance was soon taken. The follow- 
ing January Clive retook Calcutta with an army of nine hun- 
dred Europeans and one thousand five hundred Sepoys, kept at 
bay the Surajah's army of forty thousand men, and compelled 
him to make peace. His next exploit was to defeat the Sura- 
jah Dowlah at Plassy, 1757. This victory decided the fate of 
India, and laid the foundation of the Anglo-Indian empire. 

Clive was now made Governor of Bengal by the East India 
Company. In 1760 he returned to England, having previously 
defeated an attempt of the Dutch upon Calcutta. He received 
an Irish peerage as Lord Clive and Baron Plassy, and obtained 
a seat in the House of Connnons. 

The peace was very unpopular at home, and irritating to our 
German friends, so that England stood now absolutely without 
allies. 

Diiferences of opinion in the cabinet occasioned the resigna- 
tion of Granville, and he was succeeded by the Earl of Halifax, 
and the leadership in the Commons, with a seat in the Cabinet, 
was given to Mr. Fox. 

Owing to the peace, Lord Bute became very unpopular, to- 
gether with his almost exclusive patronage of his Scotch coun- 
trymen. Wilkes branded him with the epithet of favorite. 
In some of the rural districts he was burnt in effigj, and when 
he walked the streets he was followed by a gang of prize- 
fighters to protect him. These symptoms of popular dislike 
frightened him into a resignation (April 8th) to the surprise 
both of king and people. At the same time Fox was raised to 
the House of Lords, with the title of Lord Holland, still, how- 
ever, retaining his office. Bute was succeeded by George Gran- 
ville, who became First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of 



494 GEORGE III. [1763. 

the Exclieqnei'. The two Sec;retaries of State were Lords Egre- 
mont and Halifax. 

On April 19, 1T63, the king closed the session of Parliament./ 
Ilis majesty dwelt on the conditions of the peace as honorable 
to the crown and beneficial to the people. 

This speech was immediately attacked, and the peace de- 
nounced with peculiar bitterness, by John Wilkes, in the JSforth 
Briton — the celebrated number 45. Granville was bold and 
impolitic enough to order its prosecution, to which circumstance 
it owes its notoriety. Wilkes was a worthless profligate, but he 
had a remarkable power of enlisting popular sympathy on his 
side, and, by a singular irony of fortune, he became the chief 
instrument in bringing about three of the greatest advances 
M-hich our constitution has ever made. 

At a later period he awoke the nation to a conviction of the 
need of parliamentary reform, by his defence of the rights of 
constituencies against the despotism of the House of Commons, 
and he took the lead in the struggle which put an end to the 
secrecy of parliamentary proceedings. 

The prosecution of the North Br 'don. in 176-4 first established 
the right of the press to discuss public affairs. Wilkes was 
sent to prison on a " general warrant " from the Secretary of 
State. 

The legality of such a warrant, which did not name the per- 
son to be arrested, and which was not issued by a magistrate, 
was at once questioned, and no such warrant has ever been 
issued since. 

A writ of habeas corpus freed Wilkes from prison, but he 
was soon prosecuted for libel. The Plouse of Commons con- 
demned tlic paper, which was still before the civil courts, as a 
"false, scandalous, and seditious libel." The House of Lords at 
the same time voted a pamphlet found among Wilkes's papers to 
be blasphemous, and advised a prosecution. Wilkes fled to 
France and was soon expelled from the House of Commons. 

But the assumption of an arbitrary judicial power by both 
Houses, and the system of terror which Granville put in force 
against the press, by issuing two hundred injunctions against 
different journals, roused a storm of indignation throughout the 



1764.] GEORGE IH. 495 

country. Every street resounded with the cries of " Wilkes and 
liberty." 

Bold as he was, Granville dared go no further, and six years 
later the failure of the prosecution directed against an anony- 
mous journalist named ''Junius," for his letter to the king, 
established the right of the press to criticise the conduct, not of 
ministers and parliament only, but of the sovereign himself. 

Another impolitic step of Granville's, but attended with far 
more momentous consequences, was the extending of the Stamp 
Act to the ^Morth American colonies. 

The late war had been very expensive, and as it had been 
partly undertaken for the defence of those colonies, it occurred 
to Granville, in an evil hour, that they might not unjustly be 
called upon to bear part of the burden. He consulted the agents 
of the several Xorth American colonies in London upon his pro- 
ject ; inquired whether any other tax would be more agreealjlo, 
and gave a year's notice of his plan by a resolution entered in 
the journals of the Commons in 1704. 

These colonies had been continually increasing in strength 
and prosperity, and at tliis time consisted of thirteen States, 
with a population of about two million of whites and half a mil- 
lion colored people. They were, first, the New England colo- 
nies, settled by the Puritans, consisting of the four States of 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island ; 
second, New York ; third, New Jersey ; fourth, Pennsylvania ; 
fifth, Delaware ; sixth, Maryland ; seventh, Yirginia ; eighth, 
the two States of North and South Carolina ; and ninth, Georgia. 
Each of tliese colonies was governed on the English model, and 
had a House of Assembly elected by the people ; there w^as also 
a governor appointed by the crown, and a Council. In Connec- 
ticut the governor was elective. 

Hitherto the mother country and her colonies had lived in 
tolerable harmony, but at this time the American colonists were 
in a distressed and irritable condition. They w^ere suffering 
from the effects of a terrible border war wdth the Indians ; they 
considered themselves aggrieved by some new duties that had 
been imposed on theii* foreign trade, as well as by the stringent 
regulations by which their illicit traffic was repressed. All of 



496 GEORGE III. [1761-5. 

tliein were deculedly opposed to a stamp act, wliicli, from its 
nature, was far more obnoxious tlian any custom-house duties. 
The latter might be regarded as im])erial — tlie former was a 
sort of local tax or excise. Xor would they suggest any substi- 
tute, but based their opposition on the broad constitutional 
principle that there should be no taxation without representa- 
tion, and that they were not represented in the House of Com- 
mons. 

They intimated, however, a wish that, as in former instances, 
a letter from the Secretary of State, in the king's name, requir- 
ing contributions for his service, should be laid before the differ- 
ent Houses of Assembly ; and there seems little reason to doubt 
that, if this course had been adopted, the minister would have 
raised as much as he expected froui the stamp act, the produce 
of which was estimated at less than £100,000 a year. 

Parliament met January 10, 1TC5, and tlie question of the 
Stamp Act before the previous House was again brought for- 
ward. It met with little opposition. Pitt Avas absent from ill- 
ness, one or two of his party made a slight resistance, and it at- 
tracted little public notice. 

Kobody suspected that this little spark would burst out into a 
vast and nnextinguishable flame. Far different was the spirit 
whicli it excited in America. The act was reprinted, with a 
death's head at the top in place of the king's arms, and was 
hawked about under the title of the " Folly of England and ruin 
of America." Tlie vessels iu Boston hoisted their colors at half- 
mast, and the nuiffled bells of the churches tolled out a death 
knell. The colonists sent over representations so strong against 
being taxed in England that it was not thought decent or safe to 
present their memorial to Parliament. They could not see in 
Granville's proposition for a paltry tax any other than the be- 
ginning of an attempt to tax them largely without their own 
consent. 

The Stamp Act passed both Houses and received the royal 
assent March 22, 1765. 

The same year the first indications appeared of that mental 
malady which clouded the king's later days. A regency bill 
was consequently passed, appoiutijig the queen, and the descend- 



1 705-6.] GEORGE III. 497 

ants of tlie late king and queen, resident in England, to act in 
that office, and, throngh the influence of Granville, excluding 
the Princess Dowager. 

In July, 1765, the Granville ministry were dismissed, and the 
Rockingham administration came into office July 10, composed 
of men with very little parliamentary experience. Thi>s weak 
government found on its hands a question of great difficulty. 
The Stanq-) Act had been badly received in America ; there had 
been riots in many towns, involving a great loss of property. 

In January, 1700, Parliament met, and on the l-tth the sub- 
ject was brought before the House. Burke made his maiden 
speech and was followed by Pitt, who declared that Parliament 
had no right to tax the colonies, for taxation and repi'csentation 
went hand in hand. He, however, like the Americans, drew a 
line between taxation and customs. Customs he regarded in 
the light of trade regulations, and therefore in the hands of the 
imperial legislature. 

Pitt's bold speech on several occasions encouraged the minis- 
ters to act, and after a long examination of witnesses, among 
wdiom Benjamin Franklin, who had come over to oppose the 
act, w^as the most important. The repeal of the Stamp Act was 
carried amid the entliusiasm of the mercantile and liberal_ pai't 
of the nation, on February 21, 1766. 

A disagreement ensued in the Cabinet, and the king was told 
that the ministry could not get on as they were, and his majesty, 
in July, resolved to send for Mr. Pitt, who advised the king, 
and a cabinet was formed, with the Duke of Grafton as First 
Lord of the Treasury and Mr. Pitt as Lord Privy Seal, who was 
elevated to the House of Peers as Earl of Chatham, July 29, 
1760, but owing to severe illness was not able to attend to his 
official duties, and the Duke of Grafton became the real min- 
ister. 

While Chatham was absent from his post the reckless Chan- 
cellor of tlie Exchequer, Townshend, brought in a scheme for 
again raisino; revenue from America. The sum was a small one 
— £40,000 — and raised upon tea, glass, and paper, and therefore 
falling, it might be urged, under tlie head of those mercantile 
arrangements which the colonies admitted the right of Parlia- 
3'a 



498 GEORGE III. [17G8. 

meiit to make ; bnt in tlie present state of affairs in America it 
was an act of madness. , 

What Chatham called the rotten part of the constitution M'a.-, 
early in the year 17G8, brought into full play. There was a 
general election, in which bribery and the purchase of seats 
were shamelessly employed ; £4,000 is said to have been the 
average price of a small borough. Oxford offered to re-elect its 
members for £7,500, to be applied to the liquidation of its cor- 
poration debt. And to show how inefficient the representation 
was, out of a population of eight millions there were only one 
hundred and sixty thousand voters. 

The country was now in a very unsettled condition, and riots 
extended over the whole land. 

The Earl of (/hatham and Lord Shelborne retired from the 
Cabinet, and Grafton, without any views of his own, became a 
mere tool in the hands of the king and his party. George was 
set with dogged obstinacy upon the suppression of insubordina- 
tion in America and the destruction of Wilkes and his party in 
England. 

Nor did the ministry strengthen itself by its dealings with 
America. The new imposts had been received with great in- 
dignation by the colonists, especially in Massachusetts. There 
the Governor, Francis Barnard, appears to have been totally 
destitute of all power of conciliation. The Assembly, in its 
quarrel with the Governor, issued a circular letter to the other 
colonies, calling foi- their co-operation against the new taxes. 
The Society of Sons and Daughters of Liberty, who refused to 
use imported goods, multiplied in otlier colonies. The views of 
the govei-nment was not conciliation, but coercion, and troops 
and ships of war were crowded into Boston. 

Li England the feeling was strongly against the Americans, 
and coercive measures were recommended and applauded. 

Grafton next proposed conciliatory measures. lie suggested 
the removal of all taxation of America, but he was defeated in 
his own Cabinet. English pride forl)ade the council to accept a 
measure which they thoaght derogatory to the rights of an im- 
perial nation. 

Therefore, for the purpose of asserting that right, they agreed 



1700-73.] GEORGE III. 499 

to the removal of all taxes but one, and insisted tliat the tax on 
tea should be retained. 

Thus the oi%iiial principle of the right to tax was upheld, 
and the sting still left to rankle in the minds of the Ameri- 
cans. 

In the following year appeared the celebrated letters of 
Junius, attacking the policy of the ministry, and especially the 
Duke of Grafton, who resigned early in January, 1770. The 
opposition seemed to have everything in their own hands, but 
owing to jealousies of the party the king was able to take ad- 
vantage of the disunion, retain his own friends in office, and 
avoid a new Parliament being elected in the present excited 
state of the nation. 

There was only one of the late ministry capable of assuming 
the position of Prime Minister. This was Lord Xorth', Chancel- 
lor of the Exchequer, and to him the king immediately and 
successfully applied ; and with his accession to the Premiership 
the unstable character of the government ceased, and he held 
office for twelve years. The modern Tory party dates from 
that time as a powerful and efficient organization. The king 
ruled as well as reigned, and attacks on American liberty were 
his acts, the guilt of the minister consisting in his being the 
tool, against his own convictions, of a master who was not al- 
ways in possession of his reason. 

The 3'ear 1771 is memorable for the successful assertion by 
the newspaper press of the right of reporting debates of Par- 
liament. The printer of the debates was arrested on the king's 
proclamation, but released by the London magistrates. 

In 1772 the king's message, provoked by the marriage of his 
brother, the Duke of Cumberland, with Mrs. Ilorton, secured 
the passage of the Royal Marriage Act, still in force, making 
the sovereign's consent necessary to marriages in the royal 
family. 

AVhen the American colonists found that Parliament had re- 
pealed all the duties passed by the act of 1667, except on tea, 
the spirit that prompted the non-importation agreements was 
somewhat allayed, and the citizens of Xew York determined, by 
a large majority, to resume importations from England, and 



500 GEORGE III. [i;72-l. 

several orders were despatched for everj kind of mercliandise 
but tea. 

Other provinces were indignant with the jSTew Yorkists ; 
Massachusetts maintained a position of sullen defiance. The 
discontent of the colonies had been sedulously kept alive by the 
skill and vigor of the leaders of the opposition party in Eng- 
land. 

The East India Company had come to Parliament for a loan, 
and, as a sort of compensation, a bill was passed by the Com- 
mons which enabled them to export their teas from their Lon- 
don warehouses to the American colonies free from the English 
duties, and liable only to the much smaller duty to be levied in 
the colony. This would give the East India Company the 
chance to get rid <»f a large surplus stock, and enable the colo- 
nists to buy their tea considerably cheaper. To the colonists, 
however, it bore another aspect. Tlie whole plan seemed to 
them a scheme to surprise or bribe them into compliance with 
the very measure of taxation they were so strenuously opposing. 

On Sunday, JSTovember 28, 1773, the English merchant ship 
Dartmouth arrived at Boston with tea belonging to the East 
India Company. Shortly after two more shi})s arrived, and 
anchored by the side of the Dartmouth. The people kept 
watch night and day to prevent any attempt at landiiig the 
teas. Thirteen days after the arrival of the Dartmoath, the 
owner was summoned l)efore the Boston Committee, and was 
told that his vessel and his tea must be taken back to London. 
It was out of his power to do so, he said. 

lie certainly had not the power, for the passages out of the 
harbor were guarded by two of the king's ships to prevent any 
vessel g-oino; to sea without a license. 

On December lOth there was a meeting in Boston of seven 
thousand persons, who resolved that the tea should not be 
landed, and the master of the Dartmouth was ordered to 
apply to the governor for a pass for his vessel to proceed to 
London, but the governor refused to grant him a pass because his 
ship had not cleared her cargo. There was no more hesitation ; 
forty-five men, disguised as Mohawks, went to the wharf where 
the ships were lying side b}' side, and in three hours had taken 



177.;-4 ] GEORGE IH. 501 

possession of and delil)erately emptied three liundred and forty- 
five chests of tea into the waters of the bay, and after the de- 
struction was performed went qnietly away. 

Similar steps, though less violent, w^ere taken elsewhere, and 
none of the tea sent over under this disastrous act found its way 
into the market. 

Such violence and such contempt of authority exasperated the 
minds of the English people. Lord North seemed still to be in- 
clined to conciliatory measures, but the other members of the 
Cabinet were too powerful for him, especially as the king's opin- 
ion, before which Lord Korth always yielded, was thrown into the 
scale on the side of severity. The Boston Port Bill was now 
passed ; the Custom House, and consequently all the trade, was 
moved from Boston, and the port was declared closed, aud 
Salem M'as chosen to take its place. 

The anger excited Iw the bill was not confined to Boston ; a 
feeling of indignation pervaded all over the colonies. Their 
sympathy was soon increased by fear for their own liberties, 
for a second bill was introduced, abrogating the whole chai-ter 
of Massachusetts. Its popular charter was to be destroyed, and 
the colony was to become, in the strictest sense, a crown colony. 
The council was to be named by the crown, instead of by the 
people ; and the judges, magistrates, and shei'iffs were to be 
nominated and removed by the governor, without consulting 
the council. 

xVll the other colonies naturally felt their charters insecure. 
In fact, all seemed to feel that the critical time had come. 
Henceforth an appeal to arms became almost certain, and the 
idea of claiming independence began to become prevalent. Yir- 
ginia was the first to throw in her lot with Massachusetts. 

A congress was summoned at Philadelphia, and was attended 
by representatives of all the colonies except Georgia. The 
English understood that the two great bills were little short of 
a declaration of war. 

Hutchinson was recalled, and General Gage was made Gov- 
ernor of ]\Iassachusetts, while Boston was filled with troops. 
Of course, a quarrel betweeen the new governor and the assem- 
bly was inevitable. The assembly was dissolved, and refusing 



302 GEORGE IIL [1774-5. 

to disperse, collected and sat at Concord, constitnting thus, in 
fact, a rebel government, wliose orders were implicitly obeyed. 

The general congress issued a declaration of rights, setting 
forth the rights of the colonists as Englishmen, and declaring 
that the late acts were infractions of these lights and must be 
repealed before America would sul)niit, and passed a resolution 
forbidding importation from England, the use of imported 
goods, and, after one year, exportation to England. 

A general election in England in September, 1774, made it 
plain that the temper of the people was no less bitter and 
determined in the mother country than in the colonies. A 
large ministerial majority was retained ready to support any 
acts of coercion. 

The new parliament met jSTovember 20, 1774. There was an 
end of all domestic agitations. 

The king, in his opening speech, asserted his determination 
" to withstand every attempt to weaken or impair the supreme 
authority of the legislature over all the dominions of my crown," 
and the address in answer to the speech was carried in both 
Houses by a large majority. 

Early in January Lord Chatham brought forward a motion 
to withdraw the tro(){)s from Boston, lie said: ''I wish, my 
lords, not to lose a day in this urgent, pressing crisis. An hour 
now lost in allaying ferments in America may produce years of 
calamity.'' His motion was lost, 18 to ON. (Jhatham\s argu- 
ments were in vain ; the mini.stry declared they would send 
more troops instead of recalling any. 

Edmund Burke proposed a series of conciliatory resolutions, 
but they were rejected by a vote of 270 against 78. The speech 
of the great statesman presented a masterly review of the won- 
derful growth of the American colonies, their successful indus- 
try, and their commercial importance to Great Britain. 

Lord Xortli made some conciliatory proposals, but they were 
not received. It was now too late for any schemes of reconcil- 
iation, and the appeal to arms began. In April, 1775, General 
Gage determined to destroy tlie stores collected at Concord, and 
sent a body of troops for that purpose. On their return they 
found themselves attacked from behind every hedge and cover, 



1775-6.] GEORGE III. 503 

and were compelled to retreat in a very distressed condition 
after a loss of two hundred and seventy men, and tlie war had 
commenced. Congress assumed the title of the United Colonies, 
and coercive measures were decreed against any province wliich 
should refuse its authority, and, conscious that the die was cast, 
proceeded to appoint a commander-in-cOiief of all its forces. 
Their choice fell upon Colonel Washington, a Virginian gentle- 
man and a member of that body, who had seen some service in 
the frontier wars, and was much respected in his province. 

Washington at once hurried to the seat of war, but before he 
arrived, June IT, 1775, the battle of Bunker Hill had been 
fought and won by the colonists. 

The slowness which characterized the English generals at the 
beginning of the war is probably to be traced to the prevalent 
idea that reconciliation was still possible. Even at that time 
Congress was sending to the king a last appeal ; but this docu- 
ment, known as the Olive-brancli Petition, was not received in 
England. There was a technical objection to it which secured 
its rejection ; it purported to come from the "■ Congress," an ille- 
gal and unrecognized body. 

Even before the Olive-branch was sent Congress had deter- 
mined to take advantage of the successes of the preceding 
year, and had organized, under Generals JMontgomeiy and 
Arnold, an attack on Canada. Meanwhile, the dilatory conduct 
of Gage had lost Boston to the English, and Washington found 
himself strong enough to take and fortify the Dorchester 
Heights, and the British retired to Halifax. 

Lord Howe was now in command of the British, and he had 
received full powers, in accordance with a late act of Barliament, 
to receive the submission of any colony, and after such submis- 
sion to grant pardon and redress. 

In June, Lee, of Virginia, proposed to Congress that the 
colonies should declare themselves independent. The numbers, 
on division, proved to be exactly equal, but Dickinson, the 
writer of the " Pennsylvania Parmer's Letters," and the leader 
of the moderate party, consented to withdraw, and the motion 
for independence w^as tlius carried by a majority of one, and on 
July i, 1776, the Declaration of Lidependence passed. The 



504 GEORGE nX [1776-7. 

battle of Brooklyn was fonglit on August 2Ttli, and result- 
ed in a victory for the British. Large bodies of Hanoverian 
and Hessian troops were employed by England, and for several 
years the war was marked b}^ just enough success to encourage 
the king to persevere. Gradually other countries were drawn 
into the contest, until it had assumed a European character. 
War between England and France began in 1778, and Spain 
and Holland were soon ratdced among England's active enemies. 
The northern powers formed an armed neutrality. Gibraltar 
was beleagured by an immense fleet. 

In 1777 the rope house of the dockyard at Portsmouth was 
burned down. The fire was considered accidental imtil a quan- 
tity of combustibles were found in the hemp liouse of the same 
yard. About this time an incendiary attempt was made upon 
the dockyard at Plymouth, and then some warehouses were 
fired at Bristol, with an evident attempt to burn the shipping 
lying alongside. 

At this period Great Britain was ill prepared for a naval war. 
Her system of manning the navy by pressing was as ineflicient 
as it was disgraceful to a country calling itself free. 

The session of Parliament closed in May, 1777, by a grant 
of £100,000 extra to the civil list, which already amounted to 
£800,000 a year, but on examination it was discovered that 
£600,000 had been spent since 1769 in secret service. An at- 
tack by the opposition, led by Lord Chatham, was now made, 
urgino; the kinoi: to arrest the misfortunes in America, and a 
motion made by Chatham to that effect was lost. The same year 
Burgoyne's army surrendered at Saratoga. 

The disasters in America had called out considerable enthusi- 
asm in England. Money had been largely subscribed for send- 
ing out more troops, and the temper of tlie nation was evidently 
for pressing the war with energy, i-egardless of consequences. 
In vain did Lord Xorth express his desire to resign. He de- 
clared the necessity of conciliatory measures. The king, strong 
in the popular feeling, reproached him for intending to desert 
him, as he called it, and Xorth remained in office. He brought 
forward the conciliation bill, which 2:)assed without difilculty, 
and all American demands short of independence were granted. 



177S-a] GEORGE III. 505 

All officers appointed by Congress were acknowledged, and 
commissioners, with the most ample powers to discuss and ar- 
range all points of quarrel, were appointed. That hill had 
hardly passed when an open rupture with France took place, 
owing to the treaty concluded with that power and Congress 
heino- notified in insultino; terms to the British court. Lord 
Chatham died May 11, 1778, and was buried in Westminster 
Abbey. 

The pacific measures of the British government produced not 
the slightest change hi the policy of the leaders of the Ameri- 
can revolution. 

Washington held that the propositions of. Lord Xorth must 
have proceeded from despair of the nation's succeeding against 
the United Colonies, and when the royal commissioners arrived 
they were treated with little ceremony. Congress refused to 
hold a conference with them unless they should withdraw the 
naval and military power of Great Britain or acknowledge the 
independence of America in direct terms. Xo reply was given 
to the explanatory oft'ers of the connnissioners — offers which, if 
made in the early days of the contest, would have commanded 
not only willing obedience, but fervent gratitude. . The com- 
missioners determined to return to England. 

Some of the most obnoxious penal laws against Bonian Cath- 
olics were repealed in this year. They were the law which 
punished the celebration of Catholic worship as felony in a for- 
eigner, as high treason in a native, and the law by which the 
estates of popish heirs educated abroad passed to th"e next Prot- 
estant heir, by which a Protestant heir could take possession of his 
father's or relative's estate during the lifetime of the real proprie- 
tor, and by which papists could acquire property only by descent. 

In the autunm of 1779 Paul Jones, in comnumd of a small 
American squadron, consisting of the Bonhonnne RicJtard and 
two other ships, did great damage on the east coasts of England 
and Scotland. Going north he fell in wutli a number of ships 
from the Baltic, convoyed by the frigate Serapis, of fifty guns, 
and the sloop-of-war Scarhot'oiKjh^ of twenty-four guns, both of 
which he took. The Bonhomine Ilkhard sank two days after 
the action from damage sustained. 



506 GEORGE III. [1779-80. 

Tlie obstinate persistence in tlie war in America liad bronglit 
upon the country its natural consequences — excessive taxation 
and interruption of the usual course of 23rofitahle industry, and 
the minority in Parliament, whether peers or commoners, saw 
that to renew tlieir strength as a governing power they maist 
identify themselves more distinctly with the people. The 
abuses consecpient upon the excessive nundjer of sinecure offices, 
and of large pensions unsanctioned by parliamentary authority 
called for econoujical reform. The scandalous pro})ortion of 
members of the House of Commons returned for rotten bor- 
oughs demanded reform in Parliament. A vast amount of 
public opinion was brought to bear n})on these two points, and 
associations were formed to redress the grievances. 

On April G, 1780, Mr. Dunning produced the startling reso- 
lution in the House : " That it is the opinion of this House that 
the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and 
ought to be diminished." 

This resolution, with a very slight alteration, he carried 
against the government by a majority of eighteen. 

It was followed by twc» other resolutions in the same direc- 
tion, one declaring the right of the House to reform the civil 
list, the other that the abuses complained of should be immedi- 
ately redressed ; both were carried. But when the House again 
met, and he proceeded to more detailed motions. Dunning found 
that the corrupt body he addressed, though willing enougli to 
affirm abstract resolutions, had no real liking for reform. His 
majorities rapidly diminished, and finally no action was taken 
upon the resolutions he had carried. 

The same year occurred the Lord George Gordon riots, com- 
ing out of the repeal of the Roman Catholic Penal Laws. Lon- 
don was at the mercy of tlie molj for four days. The chapels 
of the Sardinian and Bavarian embassies were burnt, and, 
after a day of comparative quiet, tlie mob, finding itself nnop- 
posed, proceeded to lenewed acts of violence. Tlie prisons were, 
broken open. Catholic chapels l)urnt and sacked, the shops of 
Catholic tradesmen pillaged, and the rioters, having long passed 
out of the control of their religious leaders, were now guided 
by leaders of their own. The bank was attacked, more cliurches 



1780-1.] GEORGE III. 5()7 

isacked and prisons opened. At last ten thousand troops were 
called out, and about five hundred of the rioters were killed, and 
the crisis was over. Many prisoners were taken and twenty- 
nine were executed. The Lord Mayor was tried and found 
guilty of criminal negligence, and Lord George Gordon was 
tried for high treason, but acquitted. 

Li the midst of these difficulties at home there had been 
some rays of comfort from the success of both lieet and army 
abroad. Early in the year Admiral Rodney had been placed 
in command of a fleet which was to act in the AYest Indies. 
On his way out he had orders to relieve Gibraltar, which had 
been closely invested since the beginning of the war with Spain. 
He met the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, and gained over 
it a complete victory, and Gibraltar and Minorca were re- 
lieved. 

He then proceeded to the West Lidies, where De Grasse, 
w^ith the French and Spanish fleets, could not be brought to an 
engagement, and where for a time nothing was done. Though 
Rodney's successes and those of Admiral Digby in the Bay of 
Biscay were somewhat neutralized by the entire destruction of 
the West and East Lidia fleets, ably planned and carried out by 
the Spaniards off the Azores. 

Early in ITSl Rodney captured from the Dutch, who had 
joined the coalition against England, the wealthy island of St. 
Eustatius. Much of the property collected there was supplies 
required for the enemy's ships, which was all declared a prize 
of war. 

The coalition against England was becoming too powerful to 
be withstood ; a drawn battle with the Dutch had been fought 
off the Dogger-bank, and Sir Hyde Parker had been compelled 
to withdraw his shattered fleet into English quarters. 

The French made an attack upon Jersey, which was saved, 
after already falliug into their hands, by the intrepidity of 
Major Pierson, who unfortunately lost his life by almost the 
last shot fired. 

After varied successes and defeats, the English army under 
Cornwallis found itself on the southern bank of the York River, 
and near the village of Gloucester. The position he occupied 



508 GEORGE III. [1781. 

was not a liappy one ; it was in fact untenable without com- 
mand of the sea, which he had lost. 

He was besieged by an army of eighteen thousand men, with 
large and powerful artillery, being in part supplied by the 
French fleet. His expected reinforcements had failed him, and 
finding all his ijuns silenced and his annnunition drawino; to a 
close, felt he had to choose between surrender and an effort to 
withdraw his troops from then- untenable position. lie deter- 
mined to attempt the latter plan. His scheme was a desperate 
one ; his troops were to be transported in boats to Gloucester ; 
they were then to break through the enemy's lines, which were 
not strong in that direction, to seize the horses of the besiegers 
and of tlie neighboring country people, and make their way to 
'New York. The boats, with their loads, had already crossed 
once, when a storm arose wliich rendered the further prosecu- 
tion of the plan impossible, and when morning dawned Corn- 
wallis had no alternative but to make terms. 

He agreed to surrender all his troops as prisoners of war, and 
on October 10, ITSl, four thousand British soldiers, who re- 
mained lit for work, marched out with the honors of war 
between the long lines of the American and French army, and 
laid down their ai'ms. 

The close of the war under such circumstances of failure 
could not but bring with it the fall of the ministry. The news 
arrived at a striking time — but two days before the opening of 
the session. 

With such a weapon in their hand, and with the stored-up 
rancor of twelve years of opposition, the leaders of the Whigs 
pressed motion after motion against the government. 

Fox and Burke vied with each other in their bitter assaults, 
and the young Pitt, who had come into Parliament, rapidly as- 
sumed a high position on the same side. 

Outside Parliament vigorous opposition meetings were held, 
and the public anger was raised to its climax by a succession of 
misfortunes which befell the British arms. 

Admiral Kempenfeldt found himself completely outnumbered 
in the West Indies, and the whole of the Leeward Islands, ex- 
cept Jamaica, Barbadoes, and Antigua, were lost, Minorca had 



1782.] GEORGE III. 5 09 

snrrenclerecl, and the Irisli clifRcnlties were becoming trouble- 
some. 

The king was obliged to submit to a Wliig ministry, headed 
by the Marquis of Kockingliam and Charles James Fox, March 
20, 1782. Lord Kockingham's death, July 1st, caused the new 
ministry to fall to pieces, and power passed into the hands of 
the Earl of Shelburne and young AVilliam Pitt. 

American independence was acknowledged. Shelburne as- 
sured Dr. Franklin that the new ministry sincerely wished for 
peace, and if the independence of the United States was agreed 
to, there Avas nothing to hinder a pacification. 

Franklin declared that America could only treat in concert 
with France, and it was agreed to treat for a general peace. 

In the meantime, Rodney returned to the West Indies, where 
he joined Hood's squadron, and they completely destroyed the 
French fleet. The first action, off the island of Guadalupe, 
took place on April 12tli, where De Grasse was taken prisoner, 
and another on the 19th, under Hood, in the Mona passage. 

In spite of this success, the ministry continued its efforts for 
peace. So long as there was any hope of securing better terms 
by the capture of Gibraltar, the French would not come to the. 
point. Gibraltar had now been three years besieged ; British 
fleets had twice forced the blockade, and i-elieved the garrison. 
General Eliot's defence was vigorous, and inspired his troops 
with confidence. 

De Crillon, who had just returned from his success at 
Minorca, took command of the allied French and Spanish 
forces, and constructed ten huge floating batteries, with walls 
of wood and iron seven feet thick, shot-proof and bomb-proof, 
A fleet of forty first-rates in the harbor, and a fire fi'om four 
hundred pieces of artillery — in answer to which the English 
could only produce but one hundred — was to annihilate the for- 
tress. Eliot was not disheartened ; he concentrated all his fire, 
with red-hot shot, upon the terrible batteries ; for a long time 
they seemed impenetrable, but at length the constant stream of 
hot shot took effect, and at mid-day of September 13th their 
fire slackened, and before midnight eight out of the ten "were 
in flames. The siege was over ; the fleet was driven from the 



510 GEORGE III. [1783. 

harbor owing to stress of weather, and ,on the arrival of Lord 
Ilowe with the relieving squadron, he was able to enter and 
relieve the garrison unmolested. 

This great success, following so close upon the West India 
victory, made it plain to the allies that England was by no 
means so prostrate as they had imagined, and there was no 
longer much difhculty in settling the preliminaries of a peace. 
France accepted readily the offei's which had been rejected in 
the earlier part of the year. 

Peace Avas made January 20, 1783. The English ceded the 
little islands of St. Pierre and ]Mi(|uelon, off Newfoundland, and 
the African establishments of Senegal and Gorea. In the West 
Indies everything was restored to the same condition as before 
the war, with the exception of Tobago, which was given to 
France. In the East Indies, the Frencli were permitted to re- 
tain their conmiercial establishments, but without military occu- 
pation. 

Spain kept Minorca, and the Floridas Avere given up to her — 
better terms than she had a right to expect; England received 
in exchange the Bahamas, and the right of cutting logwood in 
Honduras. Holland, Avith whom the English government had 
in vain attempted a separate treaty, gained nothing by her rejec- 
tion of those overtures, but was obliged to agree to a mutual 
restoration of conquests. 

A provisional treaty had already been made with America, 
November 30, 1782, by Avhich the independence of the States 
was formally declared, boundaries settled, and commercial re- 
lations re-established ; the only difficulty Avas the claim for com- 
pensation for loss of property raised by the American loyalists. 

On the opening of Parliament, in April, 1783, Lord Shel- 
burne found himself in the minority upon resolutions that had 
been moved condemnatory of the peace. He at once resigned. 

After a few ineffectual struggles, the king had to accept the 
coalition ministry, under the nominal head of the Duke of 
Portland. 

Nothing could have been more distasteful to him. He found 
himself suddenly robbed of the Avhole advantage of twenty 
years of political scheming, and apparently bound hand and 



1783-6.] GEORGE III. 511 

foot by tlie detested Whig oligarchy. He hated them intensely, 
and talked of going to Hanover because of the coercion to which 
he was subjected. He probably refrained from going becanse 
of the hint, that, while it would be easy to reach that country, 
it might. not be so easy to get back to England. His submis- 
sion was short-lived ; the coalition broke down in an attempt to 
put a stop to the misgovernment in India. 

The India bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the 
Lords, in consequence of royal influence having been brought 
to bear on the minds of some of tlie peers. The king then 
dismissed the ministry, and placed Pitt at the head of the ad- 
mniistration, December 38, 1783. That minister received great 
opposition from the Whigs, led by Fox. " It was a contest," 
said Dr. Johnson, "whether the nation should be ruled by the 
sceptre of George III. or by the tongue of Fox." But the tide 
had now fairly turned. Pitt's bravery was ex.citing the s\-m- 
pathy of the people, while the unmeasured virulence of Fox 
and his partj^ was constantly damaging them. On March 25, 
178-1, Pitt reconnnended the king to dissolve Parliament. 

The elections made it evident that the feeling of the nation 
was entirelj' with Pitt, l^o less than one, hundred and sixty of 
Fox's friends lost their seats. 

Firm in his parliamentary majority and in support of the 
king, Pitt proceeded to settle the financial and domestic affairs 
of the nation, which were naturally in a bad condition after the 
close of an unsuccessful war. Having thus cleared the way for 
general legislation, he proceeded to bring in his India bill, which 
passed through both Houses, and laid the foundation of the gov- 
ernment of that country, which continued in force until the 
year 1858. 

He also brought in a bill removing the restrictions of trade 
from Ireland, so that from henceforth England and Ireland 
would become one nation, and that goods landed in Ireland 
could be exported to England without further duty ; but, for 
party purposes, or want of sufficient knowledge of political econ- 
omy, it was rejected. Eighteen .years afterward he succeeded 
in completing the measure. 

In 1786 a commercial treaty was made with France, by which 



512 GEORGE III. [1783-8. 

proliibitory duties between the two countries were repealed, a 
moderate tariff was established, and tlie famous Methuen treaty 
with Portugal was abrogated. He also greatly simplified the 
custom duties. 

The debts of the Prince of Wales were brought before Par- 
liament, but the king would not sanction a bill of relief. In 
August, 1786, an attempt on the king's life was made by an 
insane woman named Margaret Nicholson. 

Public affairs went on smoothly, save that the impeachment of 
AYarren Hastings, who was patronized by the king, was brought 
about by the aid of Purke. He was taken into custody, but re- 
leased on bail, and his trial did not actually begin until Feb- 
ruary, 1788. 

The trial took place in "Westminster Hall, the Peers sitting 
as judges, presided over by the Lord Chancellor, and the accu- 
sations being supported hy the managers appointed by the 
House of Commons, assisted by the most eminent men in Eng- 
land. Among tlieir number were Fox, Bin-ke, Sheridan, and 
Wyndliam. The ti-ial, the greatest in English annals, dragged 
its slow length until 1795. Men's passions cooled, Whigs had 
turned Tories and Tories Whigs, and when many yeai's had 
passed and Warren Hastings appeared in the House, the rep- 
resentatives of England rose in respect when the great Indi- 
an ruler came in ; and thus, the reverence of one generation 
atoned for the party spirit and exaggerated accusations of an- 
other. In ]^ovendjer, 1788, after some months of mental ill- 
ness, the king was declared incapable of carrying on the busi- 
ness of the GOimtrv. A fierce stru":<!:le commenced between 
parties, the object of the Whigs being to liave the Prince of 
Wales made Regent should the royal illness continue, while the 
Tories were determined to abridge matei'ially the power of the 
Regent. The recovery of the king put an end to the contest, 
and was the snbject of great national rejoicing. Immediately 
after the king's recovery occurred the commencement of the 
French revolution, which arrested his attention, and that great 
movement found him the most determined of its enemies. 

Pitt, in the management of foreign affairs, raised England 
from the depression into which she had sunk. One of the first 



1788.] GEORGE III. 513 

instances was the affair of Xootka Sound. Spain, raising the 
claim tliat to lier belonged the whole western coast of America, 
liad seized an English ship in Vancouvers Island and destroyed 
a settlement there. Upon this, Pitt, drawing closer his alliance 
with Prussia and Holland, and going so far as to increase 
largely the number of men in the navy, managed to exact from 
Spain a withdrawal of this claim and a restoration of English 
property. 

Before the breaking ont of the war with France, a dispute 
took place with Russia, the object being to prevent the conquest 
of Turkey by Catherine II., and, through the influence of Pitt 
in detaching the Czarina's allies from her, Turkey was saved. 
He expected to act upon the Pnssian empress as, in conjunction 
with Prussia, he had acted on A^istria and Denmark. He de- 
manded that a peace should be made upon the status quo before 
the war, and threatened to support his demand by arms. An 
increase of the fleet was ordered, but the premier was nustaken 
both in the temper of the English and in that of the empress. 
The isolated threat of one country standing without allies did 
not seem to be very terrible ; to the people of England the dan- 
ger of Russian 'aggression was of little importance. Pitt found 
it necessary to change his policy ; he withdrew his threat, and 
was content to allow Rnssia to conclude a peace, by which she 
obtained the territory between the Bug and the Dneister, and 
the fortress of Oczakow. 

It was not in its political position only that England had 
developed with extraordinary rapidity after the American war. 
Tlie condition of all those industrial arts which gave work to 
the lower orders was changed, and an energetic impulse given to 
the employment of industry. 

Despite the constant complaints of those who were bent upon 
asserting the decline of the nation, the population had been gradu- 
ally increasing ever since the revolution of 1688, and for the last 
thirty years, at the rate of al)out four hundred thousand a year. 

The use of machinery made many things cheaper, and im- 
proved methods of husbandry prevented prices from rising, as 
they would otherwise have done ; as a general rule, while the 
prices of luxuries decreased, the piice of necessaries I'ose. 
33 



514 GEORGE IIL [1790-1. 

Already the effects of the French revohition were felt in 
England. In March, 1790, a pi-oposition for the i-elief of Prot- 
estant dissenters and for the aholition of test and corporation 
acts — which had been lost by only a very small majority the 
preceding year — ^was thrown out by overwhelming numbers, A 
bill for the reform of the representation met with a similar fate. 
Shortly after, the Parliament, having run its course of seven 
years, was dissolved. 

The new parliament met ISTovemlier 25, 1700, when Mr. Ad- 
dington was chosen Speaker. 

There was no allusion to Fra!K'e in the king's speech, although 
the national mind was absorbed almost exclusively by co'ifiicting 
sentiments about the I'evolution tliere. To some it appeared 
that a great enemy was perishing before their eyes of its own 
natural decay ; to others a v.-orld of hope was seen in the vigor- 
ous life exhibited by a people downtrodden as the French lower 
classes were supposed to l)e ; to another party the hurried and 
iri-pgular vehemence which had marked the changes in France 
seemed proof only of an anarchy shocking to all respect for 
form or anti(]uity, and sad evidence against the possibility of an 
orderly growth of reform. 

^' The French have shown themselves," said Burke, " the 
ablest architects of ruin that have hitherto existed in the world." 
" They have done their business for us, as rivals, in a way which 
twenty Ramillies or Blenheims could never have done." 

The friends of the revolution in England determined to have 
a public dinner in Birmingham, to celel)rate the taking of the 
Bastile in Paris. The dinner was chiefly planned by Dr. 
Priestley, a Unitarian minister. Hearing that the movement 
was unpopular, he attempted to postpone it ; some eighty per- 
sons met, however, and in the evening a fierce riot broke out 
against them. The riots continued from Thursday till Sunday. 
Dr. Priestley's house was destroyed, and nmch wanton mischief 
.done. It was generally reported that the magistrates of the 
district, far from trying to check the rioters, had been seen urg- 
ing them on. 

Up to this point Pitt had shown no sign of yielding to the 
conservative feeling of the nation. He declared distinctl}^ that 



1792-3] GEORGE III. 515 

he intended to pnrsne a policy of nentrality, and to liold aloof 
from any interference in the domestic affairs of France. lie 
even felt so certain of the continuance of peace that his budget, 
in the spring of 1792, was framed entirely on a peace footing ; 
but the affairs that were taking place in France during the year, 
and the corresponding excitement in England, were gradually 
driving the minister to the opinion that his peaceful policy was 
no longer tenable. 

On January 21, 1703, King Lonis XVI. was executed in 
Paris. On the 2Sth the king sent a message to Parliament, in 
which he stated the indispensable necessity of a further aug- 
mentation of the forces by sea and land, and Mr. Pitt moved 
an address of thanks for the same, and to offer to his JMajesty 
" our heartfelt ('ondolence on the atrocious act lately perpetrated 
in Paris, which must be viewed by every nation in Europe as 
an outrage on religion, justice, and humanity, and as a striking 
and dreadful example of the effect of principles which lead to 
the violation of the most sacred duties, and arc utterly subver- 
sive of the peace and order of all civil society." 

Captain Cook's discoveries were now pnt to nse, and convicts 
were sent to ]S[ew South Wales and Xorfolk Island; In the 
first 3'ears of the colony these wretched creatures Avere literally 
slaves, haif-starved, with no hope of escape, the sea before 
tliem and a boundless waste behind. 

On February 11, 1793, a message from the king was delivered 
to the two Houses of Parliament, in which it was stated " That 
the Assembly now exercising the powers of government in 
France have,, without previous notice, directed acts of hostility 
to be committed against the persons and property of his Ma- 
jesty's subjects, in breach of the law of nations, and of the 
most positive stipulations of treaty, and have since, on the most 
groundless pretensions, declared war against his Majesty and 
the Fnited Provinces." 

The opposition of Mr. Fox to the war with France, supported 
as he was by only a small band of his friends, was unremitting. 
He moved an amendment to the address on the king's message 
respecting the declaration of war, and was defeated without a 
division. 



516 GEORGE III. [1790-5. 

An army, principally of Hessian and Hanoverian troops, with 
two regiments of British guards, all under the Duke of York, 
the king's second son, was sent to Holland, and a fleet to the 
West Indies. 

At the close of Parliament, June 21, 1793, there was an ex- 
ulting notice in the king's speech of " the rapid and signal suc- 
cesses which, in an early period of the campaign, have attended 
the operations of the combined armies." 

Ilevolutionary societies were formed in England and Scot- 
land, and riots broke out, principally at Shefiield and Dundee, 
and the state of aifairs were such that Pitt was induced to call 
out the militia ; Parliament was summoned owing to the emer- 
gency, and the government was sustained in their action by a 
large majority. 

The revolutionarj^ army in France was successful, and estab- 
lished its rule unquestioned in France, and thoiigli the English 
maintained their naval character, defeating tbe French fleet off 
Brest, June 1, 1794, yet their military power was not raised by 
its events. 

The most arbitrary rule was maintained at home, and nothing 
but the firnmess of the English juries prevented the establish- 
ment of as complete a reign of terror in Great Britain as existed 
in France. 

The campaign of 1705 had added Belgium, Holland, the left 
bank of the Rldne, part of Piedmont, Catalonia, and iS^avarre 
to the French dominions ; the coalition began at once to fall to 
pieces. It was the pressure of England alone which had driven 
Spain and Holland into the war, and the Spanish government 
now awoke to its true interests. Spain saw herself aiding in the 
destruction of the only efficient rival to the English upon the 
sea, and thus in fact rendering certain her own maritime insig- 
nificance. The Spanish govermnent was therefore willing to 
treat. 

Holland, completely conquered, and with half its population 
preferring the French rule to that of the Prince of Orange, 
who had been forced upon the country, obtained peace by giving 
up its chief fortresses, paying a large indemnity, making an 
offensive alliance with Fi-ance against England, an'd placing at 



1795-7.] GEORGE III. 517 

the disposal of France thirty ships of war. Many of the smaller 
states, both of Germany and Italy, declared tliemselves neutral. 
England was thus practically left witliout allies, with the single 
exception of Austria, which was only induced to continue its 
engagements by a sul^sidy of £4,500,000. 

The burden of taxation had much to do with the overtures 
for peace which were set on foot in 1796. Nearly all classes 
had become weary of the war, and an opportunity of relief was 
offered by a change in the character of the French government. 
The Dii'ectory had held its position for a 3'ear, and seemed to 
give promise of such stability as would render negotiations pos- 
sible, and the French Republic had this year reached a pitch of 
glory unecjualled in the palmiest times of the monarchy. Lord 
Malmesbury therefore was despatched to Paris. ]3ut the 
French could not understand the position of a plenipotentiary 
who had not absolute powers to act, without reference to his 
own court, and taking umbrage at the many couriers who went 
to and. from Paris, they declared their belief that the negotia- 
tion was not honestly conducted on the part of England, and 
finally De la Croix wrote suddenly to Malmesbury to leave 
Paris within eighteen hours. Thus closed the second effort on 
the part of Pitt to make peace. 

The j)i"eparations in France for invading England could not 
be kept secret ; fresh and constant effoits had been made to 
meet it. Fresh levies were made both for the army and the 
navy, and supplementary bodies of militia were raised. A new 
loan of £18,000,000 was called for, and in one hour and ten 
minutes from the time the loan was opened the wdiole amount 
was subscribed, and large sums were given to the government. 

In April, 1797, a mutiny broke out in the ileet at Spithead. 
Upon the signal being given to weigh anchor, the crew of the 
Queen Charlotte, the flag-ship, instead of obeying orders, ran 
up the shrouds and gave three cheers, which were answered 
from the other ships. Two delegates from each ship then went 
on board the flag-ship, where orders were framed for the govern- 
ment of the fleet, and petitions drawn up to the House of 
Commons and the Lords of the Admiralty for a redress of 
grievances. 



518 GEORGE III. [1797. 

Tliis alarnjiiig mutiny M-as at lengtli suppressed by some judi- 
cious concessions and by the personal intluence of Lord Jlowe. 
But, no sooner was the mutiny at iSpitliead quelled, than another, 
still more dangerous, broke out among the ships at Sheerness. 
One Ilichard Parker was the rhigleader — a man, though -illite- 
rate, of quick intellect and determined will ; and he was named 
Admiral Parker. The ships were moved from Sheerness to 
the IS^ore, to be out of the way of the batteries, the obnoxious 
officers were sent on shore, and the red iiag hoisted. The de- 
mands of the mutineers were both more peremptory and moi*e 
extensive than those made at Spithead, and embraced important 
changes in the articles of wai'. Twenty-four or twenty -five 
ships were included in the mutiny. The mutineers seized some 
store-ships, fired on some .frigates that were about to put to 
sea, and had even the audacity to blockade the mouth of the 
Thames. Gloom and depression pervaded the metropolis, and 
the funds fell to an unheard of ])rice. 

All attempts at conciliation having failed, it became necessary 
to resort to stringent measui'es. Pitt brought in a bill for the 
better prevention and punishment of attempts to seduce seamen, 
and another forbidding all intercourse with the mutineers on 
the penalty of felony. Several ships and gun-boats were armed, 
batteries were erected on shore, the nnitineers Avere prevented 
from landing to obtain fresh water or provisions, and all the 
buoys and beacons were removed, so as to render egress from 
the Tliames inqiossible. A large number of the fleet had j-e- 
mained loyal, and the proposition to carry the fleet into a French 
port was rejected with horror. One by one the ships engaged 
in the mutiny began to drop oft', and at last the Sandwich, Par- 
ker's flag-ship, ran in under the batteries and delivered up the 
ringleaders. Parker was hanged at the yard-arm of that vessel. 

During the summer of 1707 Admiral De Winter was collect- 
ing a fleet of fifteen sail of the line and a number of frigates in 
the Texel, to convey a body of fifteen thousand men to Ireland, 
then on the point of rebellion. Admiral Duncan was refitting 
in Yarmouth Poads after the nmtiny. In October the French 
put to sea, and were met by Duncan off Caniperdown, who, after 
a desperate engagement which lasted four hours, captured eight 



1797-8.] GEORGE III. 519 

sail of the line, two frigates of fiftv-six guns, and a couple of 
smaller vessels, October lltli. For this victory he was created 
Viscount Duncan of Caniperdo wn, with a pension of £3,000 a 
year. 

Owing to the loss of foreign customers for home manufac- 
tures the balance of trade was against the country, and numy 
commercial houses were obliged to suspend payment, and a 
panic ensued. 

In this crisis the Bank of England applied to the government 
for relief; a proclamation was issued forbidding payments in 
cash, and the suspension of specie payments lasted twenty years. 

The French, to whom Spain and Holland were now subsidiary, 
determined upon an invasion of England on a grand scale, and 
large fleets, numbering more than seventy sail, were got ready 
at the Texel, Brest, and Cadiz. Commodore X elson, while sail- 
ing with a convoy to Gibraltar, descried a Spanish fleet of 
twenty-seven sail of the line off Cape St. Yincent, and hastened 
to notify Admiral Jervis, who was cruising with fifteen sail of 
the line. Nelson accepted an invitation to hoist liis pennant on 
board the Captain^ seventy-four guns, and the hostile fleets 
came in sight at daybreak on February 24:th. The Spaniards 
were not only superior in number but also in the size of their 
ships, among which was the Santmima Trinidad, of one 
hundred and thirty-six guns on four decks, supposed to be the 
largest man-of-war in the world. But the unseamanlike way in 
which their ships were handled caused the English to disregard 
the disparity of force. Jervis cut off nine of their ships before 
they could form their line of battle, and eight of them took to 
flight. 

Of their remaining ships, Xolson, supported by Captain Trow- 
bridge on the Cidloden, engaged no fewer than six, namely, the 
Santlss'una Trinidad, the San Josef, and the Salvador del 
Mondo, eacli of one hundred and twelve guns, and three seventy- 
fours. After the action had lasted an hour ]S^elson was rein- 
forced by the Blenlieini and the Excellent. 

When Xelson's ship was neai'ly disabled, and his ammunition 
almost expended, he boarded and took the San Josef and then 
the San N id tolas, he himself leading the way, exclaiming, 



520 GEORGE III. [1T98. 

" Westminster Abbey or victory." The Spauisli admiral de- 
cliiieJ renewing the tight, and escaped with the remainder of his 
tleet. For this victory Sir Jolin Jervis was created Earl St. 
Vincent, with a pension of £3,000 a year. Nelson was pro- 
moted to Rear Admiral and made a Knight Connnander of the 
Bath. 

The English, in tnrn, were not backward in offensive opera- 
tions, which, however, did not prove very successful. In May, 
179S, Havre was ineffectually bombarded by Sir Richard Strahan, 
and in the same month an expedition under Sir Home Pophara 
was nndertaken against Ostend. General Coote landed with 
one thousand men and destroyed the basin, gates, and sluices 
of the Bruges Canal, in ordei- to interrupt the navigation be- 
tween France and Flanders. But the surf did not ])ermit him 
to return to the ships, and on the following morning they were 
surrounded by several columns of the enemy, and being outnum- 
bered were obliged to surrender. 

At the same time Bonaparte sailed from Toulon with thirteen 
ships of the line, and transports conveying twenty thousand 
men, on his Egyptian expedition, accompanied by some generals 
of renown and a body of mvuns. It was undertaken from a 
mere desire of spoliation and aggrandizement, for the French 
had not a shadow of a grievance to allege against the Porte. 
On the way, Malta, then govern'ed by a Grand Master, was sui-- 
prised and seized with as little pretence. At the beginning of 
July the French landed four thousand men near Alexandi'ia and 
captured that city after a slight resistance, as vrell as Aboukir 
and Rosetta, which gave them the command of one of the 
mouths of the N'ile. The French committed an indiscriminate 
massacre of men, women, and children, which lasted four hours. 
They then crossed the desert, fought the battle of the Pyramids, 
and seized Cairo, the capital of Egypt. 

Meanwhile Xelson had l)een vainly looking out for the 
French fleet, and it was not till August 1st that he discovered 
their transports in the harbor of Alexandria. Their men-of- 
Avar were anchored in the Bay of Aboukir, as close as pos- 
sible to the shore. Nevertheless, Kelson determined to get 
inside of them with some of his vessels, a manoeuvre for which 



1798-9.] GEORGE III. 521 

tliey M^ere not prepared, and tliongh tlie Culloclen grounded in 
the attempt, Xelson persevered. Thus a great part of the ene- 
my's fleet was phaced between two fires. The battle began at 
six in the evening. By eight o'clock four of the French van 
had struck, but the conflict raged in the centre. Between nine 
and ten o'clock L'' Orient, the French admiral's ship, having 
caught fire, blew up with a terrible explosion, Avhicli was fol- 
lowed by a deep silence of several minutes. The battle was 
then renewed and continued through the night with only an 
hour's pause. ISText day Rear Admiral Villeneuve escaped with 
four ships. The following morning the only French ships re- 
maining uncaptured or undestroyed were the Thnoleon and the 
Toiinant, when the former was set on fire and abandoned by 
her crew and the latter surrendered. Such was the battle of 
the Xile. Soon after the islands of Minorca and Gozo fell into 
the hands of the British. 

The news of jSTelson's victory was received with the greatest 
demonstrations of joy, not only in England, but through a great 
part of Europe. He was created Baron Kelson of the Kile, 
and a pensign of £2,000 a year Avas granted him. 

In consequence of the battle of the Kile an alliance "was 
formed between England, Russia, and the Porte, and early in 
1790 hostilities were recommenced between Austria and France. 
A joint expedition was agreed upon for the recovery of Holland, 
which was to be undertaken with thirty thousand British troops 
under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, and seventeen thousand Rus- 
sians. 

Several actions took place, attended with success and consid- 
erable loss on both sides ; but owing to the advancing season, 
and finding the army reduced by ten thousand men, the British 
connnanding general retired to a fortified position at the Zype, 
where he had to capitulate, with the understanding that he 
should restore the Ilelder in the same state as before its cap- 
ture, together with eight thousand French and Dutch prisoners, 
and that the allied ariny should re-embark without molestation 
before the end of Kovember. 

A measure was now in agitation in England for consolidating 
the power and integrity of the empire by a union with Ireland. 



523 GEORGE IIL [1799-lSOO. 

That country liad been for some years in a very disturbed 
state. 

The examples of America and France had inspired many 
with the idea of establishing an independent republic ; and in 
1791 was formed the Society of United Irishmen, consisting 
mostly of Protestants, M'hose principles would have led to that 
result. Its projector was a barrister named Wolfe Tone, who, 
having become secretary of the conmiittee for managing the 
affairs of the Irish Eoman Catholics, effected an alliance be- 
tween the two parties. The ramiiications of this society ex- 
tended over Ireland. 

Wolfe Tone having been detected in a treasonable correspon- 
dence with the French, M'as obliged to fly to xVinerica, whence 
he soon afterward crossed back again to France, and employed 
himself in forwarding the projected hivasion in 179G-97. 

Notwithstanding the frustration of these expeditions the 
Irish malcontents did not abandon their plan of an insurrec- 
tiiin. One of their principal leaders was Lord Edward Fitzger- 
ald, a brother of the Duke of Leinster's, and he was seconded 
by O'Connor, Xapper Tandy, Thomas Addis, Emmet, Bond, 
and others ; but the conspiracy was divulged by one Reynolds, 
and the principal conspirators were arrested, March 12, 179S. 
After this discovery martial law was proclaimed in Ireland, and 
many acts of cruelty took place on both sides. 

The union of England and Ireland had been for many 
years discussed, as a speculative question, but these disturb- 
ances now foi'ced it upon the serious attention of the gov- 
ernment. 

The king, in his speech on the opening of Parliament, Janu- 
ary 22, 1800, alluded to the subject, and a few days afterward 
Pitt brought forward a series of i-esolutions, which were carried 
after considerable debate. On February IStli the union was 
voted on in the Irish Parliament in Dublin. Great opposition 
was made to the measure, and the Irish Home Parliament party 
paid large sums of money for a single vote in the House, l)ut 
the union was carried by a majority of forty-six. The resolu- 
tion was then sent to England. 

A bill embodying these resolutions passed both Houses in 



1801.] GEORGE III. 523 

May, and on August 2d received tlie royal assent, the union to 
take eiTect on January 1, 1801. 

The main provisions were tliat one hundred Irish members 
should be added to the English House of Connnons, and thirty- 
two Irish Peers to the House of Lords — four spiiitual and 
twenty-eight temporal — whose seats were to be held for life. 

A council was held, consisting of the most eminent dignita- 
ries of Church and state, including the royal princes, l)y which 
proclamations were issued for making the necessary changes in 
the king's title, the national arms, and the liturgy. 

The only thing worth noting on this occasion is that the title 
of "King of France" was dropped, and the Jleurs-de-lls ex- 
punged from the royal arms. 

During the debates on the union the Irish Catholics had re- 
mained almost entirely neutral ; what little feeling they dis- 
played was in its favor. This is attributable to their luxtred of 
the Orangemen, the warmest opponents of the union, as Avell as 
to tlie expectation that their demands would be more favorably 
considered in a united Parliament than by a separate Irish 
Legislature, and which Pitt led them to expect. 

On May 15, 1800, the king was shot at in his box at Drury 
Lane Theatre. The assassin, when apprehended, was found to 
be a lunatic named James Hatfield, and the attempt was not in 
any way connected with politics. 

The first United Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland 
met February 2, 1801. In his speech the king expressed satis- 
faction at availing himself of the advice and assistance of the 
Parliament of the United Kingdom at a crisis so important. 
" This memorable era, distinguished by the accomplishment of 
a measure calculated to augment and consolidate the strength 
and resoui'ces of the empire " — " this happy union which, by 
the blessing of Providence, has now been effected." 

There had long been a want of harmony among the members 
of the Cabinet with regard to the war, but there had now arisen 
an even more formidable question. 

The union had been effected by much bribery in money, 
titles, and places ; these promises had all been fulfilled, and the 
tacit support, or at least neutrality, of the Irish lioman Catho- 



524 GEORGE III. [1801. 

lies had been secured bj an understood promise that their 
claims should be considered under the new arrangement, and 
that a bill for their relief should be brought before Parliament. 

Great opposition was shown to the measure in the Cabinet, 
but Pitt was determined to fulfill his pronuse. The king told 
Dundas that he had heard such a measure was in contempla- 
tion, and that he should hold any one who supported it his per- 
sonal enemy, on which Pitt deternuned to resign unless lie was 
allowed to fulfill his promises to the Irish. The king wrote to 
him, urging him to remain in office, and to drop the measure ; 
but Pitt was determined, and the king was forced to accept his 
resignation. Addington, the Speaker of the House of Com- 
mons, was sent for by the king, and instructed to form a min- 
istry, a duty which, by the advice of Pitt, he accepted. 

The shock of parting with a minister he had so long trusted 
brought on a renewal of the king's insanity, and measures were 
taken for a regency, under the same restrictions that Pitt had 
before insisted upon. Geoi-ge was at this time so popular that 
even the opposition treated him in his illness with every con- 
sideration. On March Tth the king was recovered in mind as 
well as in body, and the people made the most earnest demon- 
strations of their joy and attachment. 

The threatening nature of the northern league now demanded 
serious attention. In March, 1801, the King of Prussia had 
notified the Hanoverian government of his accession to it, and 
the closing of the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems, 
and demanded innnediate possession of Hanover. A short time 
before Hamburg had been seized in the name of the King of 
Denmark. 

Pemonstrances having failed, a fleet of eighteen sail of the 
line, with frigates, etc., were despatched to Denmark mider 
command of Sir Hyde Parker, with ^Nelson nominally his sec- 
ond, but in reality the commander. 

The Danish navy itself was gi-eatly superior to the force de- 
spatched against it, and Kelson pressed the necessity of hasten- 
ing operations before the breaking up of the ice should enable 
the Russians to come to the assistance of the Danes. 

Between Copenhagen and the sand-bank which defends its 



ISOl.] GEORGE III. 525 

approacli, the Danes had moored floating batteries mounting 
seventy guns, and thirteen men-of-war were also posted before 
tlie town. Nelson led on with the greater part of the fleet, and 
anchored off Draco Point, while Sir Hyde Parker, with the re- 
mainder, menaced the crown batteries. Two of Nelson's ships 
grounded going in, so that he could not extend his line. The 
action was hot, and Parker hoisted the signal to desist, but Kel- 
son would not see it, and, hoisting his own for closer action, 
ordered it to be nailed to the mast (April 2, 1801). 

The Danes fought with desperate valor, but by half-past 
three their ships had all struck, though it was impossible to 
carry them off on account of the batteries. Nelson now sent a 
note on shore, addressed " To the brothers of Englishmen, the 
Danes," in which he remarked, that if he could eifect a recon- 
ciliation between the two countries, he should consider it the 
greatest victory he liad ever gained. Subsequently he had an 
audience of Christian YII , the eifect of which was that Den- 
mark was detached from the league. 

Foiled in their northern projects, the French renewed the 
threat of an invasion. Camps were formed at Ostend, Dun- 
kirk, Brest, and St. Malo, but the main force was assendjled at 
Boulogne. It was rumored that an immense raft, to be im- 
pelled by mechanical power, and capable of conveying an army, 
was to be constructed, but no such machine appears to have 
been begun. 

However chimerical such a project might be, precautions 
against it were adopted in England. 

Lord Nelson, in command of a channel squadron, sent a few 
vessels into Boulogne, which succeeded in destroying two float- 
ing batteries, and two gun-boats. An attempt to cut out the 
flotilla in that harbor failed. 

Ever since the accession of Mr. Addington to power, negotia- 
tions for a peace had been attempted with France. 

The eyes of the English ministry were still directed toward 
Egypt, from which, on account of the East India possessions, 
as well as other reasons, it was highly desirable the French 
should be expelled. An army of eighteen thousand men, under 
command of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, was despatched, and in 



526 GEORGE ni. [lSOl-3. 

March, ISOl, landed in Aboukir Bay. The French force had 
been greatly underrated. In spite of the English cruisers, they 
had managed to procure reinforcements ; their army numbered 
over thirty-two thousand men, with one thousand pieces of artil- 
lery, and some excellent cavalry, while the English were defi- 
cient in both. 

The Enoiish took Aboukir on March ISth. Menou, the 
French connnander-in-chief, with a large force advanchig from 
Cairo, attempted to surprise the English camp, and after a se- 
vere struggle of over seven hours he was obliged to retire with 
the loss of four thousand men. The English lost fifteen hun- 
dred, anti among them was Sir Ralph Abercrombie. 

General Hutchinson, on whom the command now devolved, 
being reinforced by some Turks, successfully captured Rosetta, 
El Aft, and Cairo ; the last surrendered June 24, ISOl. It M^as 
agreed that the garrison, consisting of about thirteen thousand 
French, should be conveyed to France at the expense of the 
allied powers. Menou still held out at Alexandria. Henderson, 
being reinforced by seven thousand Sepoys from India, laid 
siege to that city, and on August 22d it surrendered, and the 
French army obtained the same terms as that of Cairo. 

On October 1, ISOl, the preliminaries of peace were signed, 
and it cost some time and much anxious negotiations before its 
final ratification. On Mai'ch 27, 1S02, peace was concluded by 
the treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte, \vliile intending to renew 
"the M'ar sooner or later, meant to keep the occasion in his own 
hands. lie never ceased from his course of aggression, treating 
England's remonstrances wfitli contempt. lie also took upon 
himself to interfere with the internal aifairs of England, and 
demanded the suppression of papers hostile to him, and the dis- 
missal of the emigrants from that country. Such comduct was 
rapidly changing the feeling in England, and rendering hostili- 
ties inevitable. On May IS, 1S03, war was declared against 
France, upon which all the English in France, numbei-ing over 
twelve thousand, were, by a single decree, taken prisoners, and 
kept confined until the close of the war. 

The government showed creditable activity. The militia, to 
the number of seventy thousand, were embodied ; an army of 



1S03-5.] GEORGE III. 527 

reserve, fifty thousand strong, M-as raised by ballot, to serve 
four years, and by a bill, known as the Military Service Bill, 
the enrolment as volunteers of all men between the ages of 
seventeen and fifty-five was provided for. The number of these 
volunteers speedily rose beyond three hundred thousand. 

As the standing array was kept at one hundred and twenty 
thousand, there must have been, in all, upward of five hundred 
thousand armed men for the purpose of defence. 

Addington resigned his office April 26, 1S04, and in May 
Pitt was induced to form a cabinet. The change of ministry 
implied a complete change of policy. 

As Addington's ministry had been from the first intended as 
a peace ministry, so the accession of Pitt to office implied a 
vigorous prosecution of the war. 

England declared war against Spain in December, because of 
the assistance she was rendering France. 

England was now fighting single-handed ; the arrival of 
Bonaparte was daily expected in England, and all Europe 
seemed to hold aloof from an alliance. But in the East the 
British arms had been victorious, and the war was this year 
brought to a triumphant conclusion in India under Sir Arthur 
"VVellesley. 

Kelson had been looking for the French fleet. He was dis- 
appointed in the Mediteri'anean ; he then sailed for the West 
Indies with ten sail of the line, but retnrned to England without 
being fortunate enough to discover them, and being in a bad 
state of health, he struck his flag at Spithead, and retired to his 
seat at Merton. 

Sir Pobert Calder was more fortunate. On July 22, 1805, 
lie fell in with the enemy some distance off Cape Finisterre, and, 
though much inferior in force, an action, ensued, in which two 
of the Spanish ships were taken. Admiral Villeneuve ulti- 
mately got into Cadiz, where he found his fleet to number 
thirty-fi\'e sail of the line. Collingwood, who was watching 
that port, sent the intelligence to Kelson. He immediately 
volunteered his services to the Admiralty, Avhich was gladly 
accepted, and on September 15th he was again on board the 
Yictory, accompanied by the Ajax and Thunderer. On the 



525 GEORGE III. [1805-6, 

29tli he arrived at Cadiz and joined Collingwood, bntliis arrival 
was, kept secret from tlie enemy. 

On October 19tli, the want of provisions obliged the enemy 
to leave Cadiz, and the English Heet innnediately gave chase, 
the course being toward the Straits of Gibraltar. It was not 
till the 21st that Xelson fell in with them off Cape Trafalgar. 

The enemy tacked, in order to be able, if necessary, to rim 
back to Cadiz, when Xelson steered a little more to the north, 
and cut them off. 

Kelson then ran np to his masthead his last signal — " is)i</- 
land exj>ects every man to do his duty " — which was greeted 
with three cheers from every ship. Kelson led the weather 
line in the Victory, but the line nnder Collingwood was the 
first to get into action. The British fleet comprised twenty- 
seven sail of the line and four frigates, with two thousand one 
hundred and forty-eight guns. The combined French and 
Spanish fleets numbered thirty-three sail of the line and five 
frigates, with two thousand six hundred and twenty-six guns. 
The action had lasted about half an hour when Kelson was 
struck by a nnisket-ball, and fell on the deck mortally wounded. 
Before he died he liad the satisfaction to -hear from Captain 
Hardy that he had gained a complete victory, nineteen of the 
enemy's ships having struck their colors and one blew up. The 
prisoners taken, including the troops on l)oard, . amounted to 
about twelve thousand men, October 21, 1805. 

AYiliiam Pitt had long been suffering from disease, during 
which he was cheered for a moment by the glory of Trafalgar, 
dimmed though it was by the death of Kelson. The disasters of 
Ulm and Austerlitz, which events, together with the dissolution 
by the treaty of Presburg, of the coalition he had so laboriously 
established, went far to render fatal the disease which held him, 
and to which lie yielded January 23, ISOG. 

His death was followed by a change of the Cabinet, Lord 
Grenville succeeding as First Lord of the Treasury. 

On February 3, 1807, a bill passed Parliament prohibiting 
slave-trading, but as the punishments were only pecuniary, a new 
bill was required, which was introduced by Mr. Brougham in 
1811, making slave-trading a felony. 



1807.] GEORGE III. 529 

On the IStli of March, 1807, Lord Grenville's ministry was 
dismissed and a new administration formed, with the Duke of 
Portland as First Lord of the Treasury, George Canning For- 
eign Secretary, Lord Castlereagh Secretary at War and Colo- 
nies, Spencer Percival Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Lord 
Eldon Chancellor in place of Lord Erskine. A " no popery " 
cry was raised, in which Wilberforce and the evangelical party 
loudly jonied ; the ministers took advantage of it to dissolve 
Parliament, though it had been returned only a few months, 
and the elections secured them a large majority. 

The military expeditions arranged by the (Trenville ministiy 
had resulted unfortunately in all quarters. Sir John Duckworth 
was despatched with a squadron to bring the' Turks to reason; 
he succeeded in passing the Dardanelles, and appeai'ed before 
Constantinople in February, 1807, but the Turks amused him 
with negotiations until they had put their city in a position of 
defence, and Duckworth made a disgraceful retreat, for which 
he was afterward brought to a court-martial. 

Meanwhile the Russians, exhausted in the field, and receiving 
no assistance from England, concluded with France the peace of 
Tilsit, July 7, 1807, to which Prussia afterward acceded. Both 
these countries agreed to shut their ports against the English. 
When, too late. Canning sent an envoy to conciliate the Em- 
peror Alexander, he could not even obtain an audience, and re- 
turned with the conviction that the emperor, by a secret article 
of the treaty, had placed not only his own fleet, but also those 
of Sweden and Denmark at the disposal of Xapoleon. It was 
no time for hesitation. Denmark commanded the entrance of 
the Baltic ; a large fleet was lying in her harbors ; the north of 
Germany was full of French troops ; and, however friendly 
might be the disposition of the Danes, it was evident that their 
movements would depend on the will of I^apoleon. A powerful 
armament, consisting of twenty-five sail of the line, forty frigates 
and other small vessels, and three hundred and seventy-seven 
transports, carrying twenty- seven thousand troops, was secretly 
and promptly fitted out, and sailed from Yarmouth Roads, July 
27, 1807, under the command of Admiral Gambler; Lord Cath- 
cart was at the head of the army, under whom served Sir Arthur 
34 



530 GEORGE III. [1807. 

Welleslej, an officer wlio had greatly distinguislied liimself in 
India. 

On Angust 9tli the expedition was safely anchored in the 
Roads of Elsinore. JNTegotiations were opened for the delivery 
of the Danish fleet nnder the solenni promise that it should be 
restored on the conclusion of the peace with France. The pro- 
posal being indignantly rejected by the crown prince, prepara- 
tions were made to enforce it. The fleet proceeded to Copen- 
hagen, the troops were landed and batteries constructed, and 
on September 2d a bombardment commenced both by sea and 
land. On the 5th the •Danish commander surrendered, and on 
the Sth the English- troops took possession of Copenhagen. On 
October 20th the whole Danish fleet was pi'epared for sea and 
taken to England, together with an innnense quantity of naval 
stores and three thousand pieces of artillery. The island of 
Heligoland was also captured, and served as a depot for English 
goods to be smuggled into the continent. 

The rage of IS^apoleon at this intelligence was terrific. The 
Danes declared war against England, the consequence of which 
was the capture of the Danish West India Islands of St. Thomas, 
St. John's, and St. Croix in December. 

The King of Portugal, having refused to enfoi'ce the Berlin 
decree against England, Napoleon detei-mined to attack that 
country. For that purpose, on October 2Tth, he entered into a 
treaty with Spain, which was to have a portion of Portugal, and 
before the treaty was signed lie despatched an army of thirty 
thousand men, under Junot, across the Bidassoa, which entered 
Lisbon November 30th. 

The Prince Regent, Dom Pedro, with many of his nobility 
and fifteen thousand of his subjects, had sailed the day pre\i- 
ously for the Brazils, and Napoleon proclaimed that the house 
of Braganza had ceased to reign. No sooner was Napoleon in 
possession of Portugal than, with the help of Godoy, the Prime 
Minister of Spain, he treacherously turned his arms against that 
country. The imbecile Charles IV. was decoyed into Bayonne, 
where a renunciation of the Spanish throne in favor of Napoleon 
was extorted from him in consideration of the palace and do- 
mains of Navarre, and a pension of four hundred thousand 



1808-9.] GEORGE III 53I 

francs ; it was? then declared that the Spanish Bourbons had 
ceased to reign. 

Joseph Bonaparte, mucli against his will, was compelled to 
exchange the crown of Naples for that of Spain, wdiile the for- 
mer was bestowed npon Napoleon's brother-in-law, Murat. 

The Spaniards rose in insurrection, and established at Seville 
a " Supreme Junta," and declared Ferdinand king. 

General Castanos, who commanded the Spanish army of An- 
dalusia, applied to Sir Hew Dalrjmple, commandant of Gibral- 
tar, with a view to obtain assistance from England, Colling- 
wood carried his fleet into Cadiz, and lent the Spaniards what 
assistance he c*ould in ammunition and stores. 

At length the British government undertook to aid the Span- 
iards with some troops. Ou July 12, 1808, Sir Arthur Welles- 
ley sailed from Cork for the Peninsula with about twelve thou- 
sand men, and on August 1st landed at Figueira, where he was 
reinforced by about four thousand men from Cadiz, On the 
21st was fought the battle of Vimeira, in which the French M^ere 
completely defeated. This was the prelude to the celebrated 
Peninsula wars, where WelJesley continued, with slight inter- 
missions, until 1814, when he had cleared Portugal and Spain of 
the invaders. 

When the session of Parliament was closed on June 21st, 
1809, events in Germany justified the assertion in a speech from 
thc' throne, that the resistance in Spain against the usurpation 
and tyranny of the Fi'ench governmeiit had awakened in other 
nations of Europe a determination to resist, by a new effort, the 
continued and increasing encroachments on their safety and in- 
dependence. 

In order to support the Austrian struggle agahist France, the 
English ministry resolved to divert the French arms by an ex- 
pedition to the Scheldt, particularly as Napoleon was attempt- 
ing to convert Antwerp and Flushing into great naval depots. 

On July 25, 1809, a large armament sailed fi-om Portsmouth, 
consisting of thirty-seven sail of the line, and an army of forty 
thousand men, but under incompetent leaders — the Earl of 
Chatham and Rear Admiral Strahan. On July 30th the troops 
were landed on the Isle of Walcheren, where time was lost in 



532 GEORGE in. [1SC9-11. 

reducing Flusliing, during which the Scheldt had been strongly 
fortified and forty thousand men throM-n into Antwerp, The 
enterprise was then abandoned as impracticable, and the expe- 
dition returned home, leaving sixteen thousand men in pos- 
session of the Isle of Walcheren. These, however, began rap- 
idly to disappear, from the effects of the fever and ague, 
common to that unhealthy climate, and in a short time half the 
force was in hospital. After the middle of ISTovember it was 
evacuated, the harbor, arsenal, and magazines of Flushing hav- 
ing been destroyed. The remainder of the troops retunied to 
England. Such was the end of an expedition costing the coun- 
trj £20,000,000. 

On October 25, 1S09, was celebrated " the Jubilee," the 
fiftieth anniversary of his majesty's accession to tlie throne. 
There was a feeling of attachment to their old sovereign, pity 
for his growing infirmities, and a sympathy with his sturdy 
hatred to Ts^apoleon and French domination. One thing the 
people dreaded, that his reign should come to an end ; that the 
example of the domestic virtues that prevailed at Windsor 
should be succeeded by the license of Carlton House. 

In Xovember, 1810, the king, who had never thoroughly re- 
covered from the effects of the failure of the Walcheren expe- 
dition and the disgrace of Lord Chatham and the Duke of 
York, was still further shaken by the death of his daughter, the 
Princess Amelia, and before long it appeared that he had be- 
come hopelessly insane. After several prorogations of Parlia- 
ment, it was resolved, on December 20, 1810, to supply the ex- 
isting defect in the organization of government. 

Parliament having been opened by a commission under the 
great seal, the Regency Bill was passed, February 5, 1811. The 
reign of George III. had virtually closed on that day. 

The Regency of George, Prince of Wales, — A.D. 1811-1820. 

The Prince of Wales took the oath of office on February 6, 
1811, before a Privy Council assembled at Carlton House, and 
immediately declared his intention of retaining Mr. Perceval 
and his cabinet in office, who were resolved to continue the war. 



1811.] GEORGE III. 533 

In the Peninsula the Spaniards had been beaten at every 
point, and the Jnnta was obliged to take refuge in Cadiz, which 
was now invested by a French army, A British force of about 
six thousand men had been thrown into the place to assist in its 
defence, and the English fleet kept open the communications 
by sea. 

After the peace with Austria, Napoleon was enabled to mai-ch 
large reinforcements into Spain, including some of his best 
troops. Perceval abandoned all hope of preserving a hold on 
the Peninsula in the face of these new efforts, and threw on 
Wellesley, who had been raised to the peerage as Lord Welling- 
ton after his victory at Talavera, the responsibility of resolving 
to remain there. 

By the addition of Portuguese troops, who had been trained 
under British officers, Wellington's army now numbered fifty 
thousand men ; and though his inferiority in force had com- 
pelled him to look on while Massena reduced the frontier for- 
tresses of Ciudad Itodrigo and Almeida, he inflicted on liim a 
heavy check at the heights of Busaco, and finally fell back, in 
October, 1810, on three lines of defence which he had secretly 
constructed at Torres Vedras, along a chain of mountain heights 
crowned with redoubts and bristling with cannon. 

Tlie position was impregnable, and Massena, after a long and 
fruitless attempt, was obliged to fall bilck through a wasted 
country, where his privations were terrible, and where he lost a 
large number of his men from want and fatigue. An attempt 
of Wellington to retake Badajoz failed, by the co-operation of 
the army of the south, under Marshal Soult, with that of the 
north, under Marshal Mai-mont. 

Not only was the French hold on Spam too strong to be 
shaken by the force at Wellington's command, but the conti- 
nental system of Napoleon was beginning to involve England in 
dangers which he was far from having foreseen. 

His efforts to exclude English manufactures from the conti- 
nent had been foiled by the rise of the vast system of contra- 
band trade, and by the evasions in the Bussian and Prussian 
ports. 

During the year 1811, the French had been deprived of all 



534 GEORGE III. [1811-13. 

their possessions in tlie East and West Indies. Tiie Dutch had 
also lost most of their East Indian settlements, and the follow- 
ing year the remainder were reduced. 

On the continent, however, the French empire was extending. 
Kapoleon, having deposed his brother Louis, annexed Holland 
to France, the German coast to Hamburg being afterward 
added. The French empire, therefore, might be said to extend 
from Naples to the frontiers of Denmark, embracing a popula- 
tion of eighty millions. 

On May 3, 1811, Wellington met Massena at Fuentes de 
Orons, and the French were beaten with great loss. On the 
15th a battle was fought between Marshal Beresford and Soult 
at Badajoz, and after six hom's' hard lighting the English were 
victorious. 

The beginning of 1812 was marked by some changes in the 
Cabinet, and on May 11, 1812, Mr. Perceval was assassinated by 
a lunatic named Bellingham, Avhose petition he had rejected. 

Upon this event all the ministers tendered their resignation, 
and an. attempt was made to construct a Whig cabinet, but it 
failed. Lord Liverpool now became Premier, Lord Castlereagh 
Foreign Secretary, and Mr. Vansittart Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer. The financial measures of Mr. Perceval were adopted, 
and it was resolved to push the war with vigor. 

Wellington opened the campaign of 1812 with tlie capture 
of Ciudad Rodrigo, January 19th, for which he was created an 
earl, with an annuity of £2,000. On June 27th a message was 
sent to Parliament from the Prince Regent on the disturbed 
state of the country. In Lancashire and in parts of Cheshire 
and the West Riding of Yorkshire there was an organized sys- 
tem . of conspiracy for the destruction of machinery, owing to 
the stagnation of trade and the improvements in machiueiy 
]'e(|uiring fewer hands. A law was immediately passed making 
such destruction a capital crime. Many rioters were convicted 
and sixteen hanged, and gradually the disturbances ceased. 

hi this year the iVmericans displayed an unfriendly feeling 
toward England. They were incensed at her exercise of the 
right of search, which had been forced upon her by the Berlin 
decree, and they insisted upon the doctrine that the .neutral liag 



1813-13.] ■ GEORGE III. 535 

makes free goods, and it became evident tliat war must result, 
unless that decree was repealed. But England was in confusion 
owing to the assassination of the Prime Minister, and it was not 
until the middle of June, when war had already been declared, 
that Brougham's motion for the withdrawal of the order was 
carried. The concessions, awkwardly made in the face of Amer- 
ican threats, came too late. The Americans had already made 
up their minds and planned an invasion of Canada. 

Proclamations were issued inviting the Canadians to throw 
off the British yoke ; but they remained faithful. 

It was a war without great events. The attempts of the 
Americans upon Canada failed. Here aTid there a small suc- 
cess attended the British arms, and the deep anger of the 
Americans was the troublesome blockade of their coast, and the 
employment of the savage Indian tribes as allies hy the Eng- 
lish. But if fairly successful on land, the British, to their great 
astonishment, were thoroughly worsted at sea. Ship after ship 
was taken by the American frigates. Kot till the fact was re- 
cognized that the classifications of the two navies were wholly 
different, and that an American frigate was, in tonnage and 
weight of metal, a match for a British fifty-gun ship, were these 
disasters brought to an end. It was an additional blow to the 
pride of England that the sailors In' whom her ships were de- 
feated, were largely drawn from her own people. From the 
wretchedness prevailing in England, from high taxes, commer- 
cial dithculties, and the severe laws of impressment, men fled 
for lefuge to America, and it is said that as many as sixteen 
thousand Englishmen were serving on board the American 
fleet. 

The war was so causeless and so prejudicial to the success of 
the allies in Europe, that the Emperor of Russia attempted, in 
1813, to bring it to a close by mediation. Though his offer was 
declined, a negotiation was entered into at Ghent, which ulti- 
mately proved successful ; but before the negotiators advanced 
far in their labors, the war threatened to assume a more serious 
character. 

A considerable number of British troops were embarked for 
America, and a combined attack by land and water was made 



536 GEORGE III. [1813. 

on Wasliington. The success of the expedition was complete, 
and was stained by the destruction of all public propei'ty. 

It is said the government ordered it as a retaliation for the 
barbarities of the Americans on the Canadian frontier. 

A peremptory demand on the part of France to the other 
powers for the entire cessation of intercourse with England 
brought the quarrel to a head, and preparations were made on 
all sides for a gigantic struggle. 

The best of the French soldiers were drawn from S])ain to 
the frontier of Poland, and Wellington profited by the with- 
drawal to throw off his system of defence, and to assume an 
attitude of attack. 

Kapoleon then undertook his disastrous expedition into Rus- 
sia. The burning of Moscow, September 15, 1S12, forced him 
to retreat, during which the greater part of his vast armj"' was 
annihilated either by the inclemency of the weather, or the 
sword of the enemy, and during the summer a treaty was con- 
cluded between England, Kussia, and Sweden. 

The French reverses not only prevented Xapoleon from send- 
ing re-enforcements into Spain, but also obliged him to recall 
Marshal Soult and twenty thousand men from that country, in 
order to oppose the advance of the Kussians, and the Spanish 
government made Lord Wellington Commander-in-chief of- the 
Spanish forces. In May, 1813, he entered Spain with three di- 
visions, the centre being led by himself ; the French retreated 
before him, until they took up a strong position in front of the 
town of Vittoria, where they were attacked and beaten, June 
21, 1813. Losing the whole of their artillery, baggage, and 
ammunition, they lied in the greatest disorder to Pampluna. 

Napoleon now sent Soult, with the title of " Lieutenant of 
the Emperor," to reorganize the defeated army and defend tlie 
frontiers of France. On four consecutive days (27tli to 30th 
July) bloody and persevering attacks were nuide upon the allied 
lines; but tliey were repulsed, and on the 31st Soult was in full 
retreat for France. These engagements were called the " Battles 
of the Pyrenees," 

On August 31st St. Sebastian was carried by assault, but 
with terrible loss. Before the middle of November all the 



1813-14.] GEORGE III. 537 

allied armj was on French territory. AYellington had issued a 
proclamation containing the strictest injunctions not to molest 
the peaceable inhabitants, which the Spaniards could not be 
brought to obey, and at last he was obliged to^send most of them 
back over the frontier. The peasants of the south of France, 
oppressed by the conscription, welcomed the English as de- 
liverers. 

Soult then retired to his entrenched camp at Bayonne, and 
the allies M-ent for a few weeks into winter quarters. 

The whole continent was now in arms against Napoleon ; the 
news of AYellington's glorious campaign in the Peninsula stimu- 
lated the Germans to resistance. Prussia and Pussia contracted 
an alliance, offensive and defensive, and they were joined by 
Great Britain, June 14, 1813. 

By the most unsparing conscription, j^apoleon had raised 
seven hundred thousand men, half of whom were despatched 
into Germany, but they were raw recruits, nnich inferior to 
those with which he had won his early victories. He gained in 
May the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen, but they led to little 
result. The French occupied Leipsic and Dresden, when an 
armistice was agreed upon from June 5th to August 10th. Na- 
poleon refused to give up his conquests beyond the Phine ; and 
at tlie conclusion of the armistice Austria joined the coalition 
against him. England supplied the Prussians, Hanoverians, 
and Swedes, with money and stores. Then came war in as 
tremendous a form as the art of destruction ever assumed. 

The battles of Dresden, Gross Beeren, Dennevvitz, and the 
Katzbach were fought, in all of which the French were de- 
feated, and, tinally, the crowning battle of Leipsic, where Napo- 
leon was completely overthrown, and compelled to a retreat as 
disastrous as that from Moscow. Crossing the Phine with less 
than a cpiarter of the enormous army he had collected in Gei-- 
many, he reached Paris November 9th, though beaten, still 
arrogant and presumptuous. 

In February, ISll, Wellington again took the field, and 
Soult retired before him across the Gave d'Oleron. On the 
27th Soult was defeated at Orthez with great loss, and Welling- 
ton pushed on to the Adour, directing Sir John Hope to invest 



538 GEORGE III. [1814. 

Bayonne, and Marshal Beresford to occupy Bordeaux, where, 
on liis arrival, the mayor and citizens proclaimed Louis XVIII. 
of their own accord — for Wellington studiously avoided all in- 
terference in favor of the Bourbons. 

Soult no^v retreated upon Toulouse ; "Wellington, who reached 
that city March 27th, found him posted on the right bank of 
the broad and rapid Garonne. It was April 9th before the 
British army could be conveyed to the other side. 

Tlie last battle was fought between Wellington and Soult on 
April lOtli, near Toulouse. It was a battle in wliich two great 
commanders 2^nt forth all tlieir strength against each other with 
no adecpiate results for the loss of eight thousand men. It was 
a useless battle, for the war was already ended ; the Senate had 
declared that Xapoleon had forfeited ths throne ; a Provisional 
Goverinnent had been formed ; the Emperor of the French 
had abdicated on the 4th ; the Emperor of Bussia and the 
King of Prussia had been in Paris four days. 

On April 23, 1814, a convention between the Count d'Artois 
and the allied powers was signed at Paris, by which- it was 
stipulated that all hostilities should cease, and that the foreign 
armies should evacuate the French territory. A congress to 
be held at Vienna M^as to confirm its conditions and to reor- 
ganize Europe. 

There were three months of pul)lic joy in England, such as 
never had been witnessed. The allied sovereigns were invited 
to visit the Prince Regent in England ; the Emperor of Austria 
declined, but the Czar and the King of Prussia accepted the 
invitation, and were received with great pomp and enthusiasm. 

The congress at Vienna, at first appointed for August, had 
been postponed to September, and thither, after their visit to 
England, the monarchs themselves and the ministers who repre- 
sented the various countries at once repaired. The interests of 
England were intrusted to Lord Castlereagh, a man of consider- 
able firnmess, but of mediocre ability, without accurate knowl- 
edge or broad views of the politics of Europe, and deficient in 
the conciliatory deportment so necessary for a successful diplo- 
matist. 

The time of the congress was principally occupied with the 



1815.] GEORGE lU. 539 

personal and peculiar interest of eacli sovereign, instead of at- 
tempting a settlement of Europe in accordance with tlie growing 
change of ideas, the outgrowth and effect of the revolution. 

Before the conclusion of those questions Castlereagh had been 
compelled, by the meeting of Parliament, to return to England, 
and the Duke of Wellington had taken his place at Vienna. 
His work there was not completed when the news arrived that 
jSTapoleon had escaped from Elba, and the duke was wanted to 
take command of the allied army in Belgium. 

The renewal of the coming danger produced a temporary 
harmony among the negotiators ; the chief questions were 
rapidly settled, and a joint proclamation was issued by the eight 
powers which had signed the Peace of Paris, declaring Xapo- 
leon the common enemy of Europe. The congress continued its 
sittings, but the military preparations for the time absorbed all 
attention. 

The treaty of peace and amity between the United States 
and Great Britain was signed at Ghent on December 24:, 1S14-, 
but prev-ious to that news having reached America the battle of 
Kew Orleans was fought, January 16, 1815. General Paken- 
ham, commanding the British, was killed. The English loss 
was two thousand killed, wounded, and prisoners. An armis- 
tice of two days was agreed upon for the purpose of burying 
the dead. On January ISth the retreat of the British army 
commenced, and was so safely effected that the troops re-em- 
barked on the night of the 2Tth, with all the artillery and stores 
except eight heavy guns. 

An insignificant triumph in the capture of Fort Boyer, near 
Mobile, closed their military operations, February 12, 1815. 
The news of the conclusion of peace at Ghent arrived next day. 

On April 6th the Prince Pegent sent a message to the two 
Houses of Parliament to the effect that the events which had 
recently occurred in France had induced His Royal Highness to 
give directions for the augmentation of the land and sea forces. 

It was also announced that the Prince Pegent had lost no 
time in entering into communication with the allied powers for 
the purpose of forming such a concert as might most effectually 
provide for the general and permanent security of Europe. 



540 GEORGE in. [1S15. 

The treaty of Yienna of Marcli 23d had hound the allied 
powers to make war together upon Kapoleon, and to conclude 
•no separate peace with him. 

The resistance in the British Parliament to engage in this 
war was very feeble. A motion for an address, praying the 
crown not to involve the country in a war, upon the ground of 
excluding a particular person from the government of France, 
was rejected by a vote of two hundred and seventy-three against 
seventy-two. 

The enormous sums demanded by the government were voted 
almost without inquiry. Kapoleon, having appointed a Pro- 
visional Government to act in concert with the Chambers, left 
Paris on the evening of June 11, 1815. On the IStli he had 
crossed the frontier, and was at the head of one hundred and 
twenty-two thousand men at Charlei-oi, in the Netherlands, and 
on the ISth was fought the decisive battle of AVaterloo, which 
again sent Napoleon from his throne. Tlie loss in this great 
battle was very heavy on all sides ; that of England is put 
down at thirteen thousand, Prussia, seven thousand, and 
France thirty thousand men. 

The advance of the allies into France was unchecked, and on 
the Tth of July Paris was again occupied. The marcli through 
the couiitry exhibited the different feelings by which they were 
actuated ; wdiile Bliicher and the Prussians thought of nothing 
but vengeance, Wellington insisted upon regarding France as a 
friendly country to which he w'as restoring its legitimate sove- 
reign. He succeeded in restraining his violent colleague, wdio 
wished to put Napoleon to death, to lay contributions on Paris, 
and to blow up the bridge of Jena, over the Seine, the name of 
which he considered an insult to Prussia. 

Wellington had no instructions as regards Napoleon ; he 
therefore allowed him to follow his own course. 

The emperor embarked on an English frigate, the Bellero- 
phon, intending to claim tlie hospitality of England ; but the 
dread of his name and ambition, and the proved danger of al- 
lowing him to remain in Europe, prevented the British govern- 
ment from entertaining any such ideas, and Napoleon was sent 
to end his days as a prisoner at St. Helena. 



1815-17.] GEORGE III. 541 

On !N"ovember 20, 1S15, a treaty was signed between France 
on the one part, and Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia 
on the other. Its object was declared to be for the "restoring 
between France and her neiglibors those relations of reciprocal 
confidence and good-will which the fatal effects of the revolu- 
tion and of the system of conquest had for so long a time 
disturbed.'' 

Parliament assembled on February 1, 1816, and the opposi- 
tion used every effort to put an end to many of the taxes levied 
for war purposes ; Mr. Brougham was very active, and availed 
himself of every means of delay afforded by the forms of the 
House. But when the ministers proposed a magnificent estab- 
lishment for the Princess Charlotte and Prince Leopold (after- 
ward King of the Belgians), upon their marriage, not a dissen- 
tient voice was heard. 

Troubles arose in 1816. The depression in business was gen- 
eral ; the fall in agricultural profits had ruined many banks in 
the provinces, and induced others to restrict their circulation. 
A severe winter, a deficient harvest, and the rise in the pi-ice of 
wheat came to complete the general misery. The effect was 
widespread, and serious riots the consequence ; while hunger 
and misery, the depression of trade, and the influence of a few 
able demagogues, were driving the working classes to acts of 
violence, and a dangerous union was being established between 
social and political discontent. In February, 1817, the govern- 
ment introduced and carried bills through Parliament for pre- 
venting attempts to seduce soldiers and sailors from their alle- 
giance, to prevent seditious meetings, and for the suspension of 
the habeas corpus act until July 1st. 

The death of the Princess Charlotte, the presumptive heiress 
of the British crown, on Xovember 6, 1817, after the birth of 
a dead child, plunged the nation into deep and universal grief. 
From the highest to the lowest this death was looked upon as a 
great calamity. She was a beautiful, accomplished, and noble- 
hearted woman, and the nation had looked forward to the days 
when a virtuous queen should diffuse the sunlight of just gov- 
ernment through every corner of a prosperous and happy land. 
She had married the man of her choice, from love and affection. 



542 GEORGE ni [1817-19. 

Tlie prince brought neither territory nor inflnence, but he 
brono;ht an active, firm, inquiring mind and an amiable temper, 
and tlie sympathy of the whole nation was with him. 

After the death of the princess, the prince regent had been seri- ' 
ously indisposed, and for a short time his life was considered in 
danger. It seemed for the moment that the large and strong 
family of the old king would come to an end in the first gener- 
ation. 

Before the close of the following year this probability was 
lessened. No less than four members of the royal family were 
then married. The Princess Elizabeth had married the Land- 
grave of Hesse Homburg ; the Duke of Clarence, the king's 
third son, the Princess Adelaide of Saxe Meiningen, July 13th ; 
the Duke of Cambridge married the Princess Augusta of Hesse, 
June 1st ; and the Duke of Kent, George's fourth son, July 
13th, married the Princess Victoria Mary Louisa, daughter of 
the Duke of Saxe Coburg Saaltield, widow of Enrich Charles, 
Prince of Leiningen, and sister of Prince Leopold ; and by this 
marriage was born, on May 21, 1819, the Princess Victoria, the 
present queen. 

On JSTovember 17, 1818, took place the death of Queen Char- 
lotte, at the age of seventy-five. For fifty-seven years she had 
shared the political anxieties and watched over the mental ab- 
errations of the king, who had, since 1811, ceased to be con- 
scious of the sympathy of wife or child. Under the regency 
bill she was appointed custos of the king's person, and at her 
death the Duke of York, the king's second son, was appointed 
to that office. 

A new parliament assembled January 14, 1819, and Mr. 
Manners-Sutton was elected Speaker. The opening speech was 
delivered by commission on the 21st. The principal business 
before the House was the state of the currency, and a bill was 
passed for the resumption of specie payments the following 
year. The report of a committee was received recommending 
the repeal of many capital punishments. In this session the 
question of parliamentary reform was agitated by Sir Francis 
Burdett. He proposed that early in the next session the House 
should take into consideration the state of the representation. 



1830.] GEORGE HI. 543 

The occasion was remarkable for the first declaration of the 
opinions of Lord John Russell, who had just entered Parliament 
at the age of twenty-one years. 

On May 3d Mr. Grattan was heard for the last time in the 
House of Commons, in support of the measure nearest to his 
heart — that of Catholic emancipation. After his speech the 
House divided, and his motion was lost by two votes. On July 
13th Parliament was prorogued. 

Parliament had adjourned to February 15, 1820. An event 
not unexpected at any time during the last year or two called 
the Houses together at an eai'lier period. George III. died at 
Windsor Castle on the evening of January 29th. Six days be- 
fore the death of the king his fourth son, the Duke of Kent, 
expired at Weymouth. This was a sudden event. The duke's 
infant daughter, Alexandrina Victoria, was then eight months 
old. The Prince of Wales and the Duke of York had no child 
to succeed. A daughter had been born to the Duke of Clarence 
on March 27th, but died on the day of her birth. It seemed 
probable that the Duke of Kent's daughter would succeed to 
the throne ; and on this probability those who knew the admir- 
able qualities of the Duchess of Kent felt hopeful and confident 
that the nurture of the royal child would fit her for her royal 
destiny. 

George III. died in the eighty- second year of his age and the 
sixtieth year of his reign, including the regency. He passed 
away and the people looked back with reverence upon his pri- 
vate virtues, and were willing to forget his kingly faults. He 
was succeeded by his eldest son, George Augustus Frederick, 
the Prince Pegent. 

CoNTEMPOEARY PuLERs. — Frauco *. Louis XVIL, the Repub- 
lic, Xapoleon, Louis XVIII., Charles X.; Emperors of the 
West: Leopold II., Francis II. (the last), end of the empire, 
1806 ; Emperors of Russia : Paul, Alexander, Xicholas ; Prus- 
sia : Frederick William II., Frederick William III. ; Austria : 
Francis, Francis I. ; Spain : Charles IV., Ferdinand VII., Joseph 
Bonaparte. 



544 GEORGE IV. [1820. 

George IV. — A.D. 1820-1830. 

Born at St. James's Palace, August 12, 1762. 

Married, April 8, 1795, his cousin, the Princess Caroline, daughter of Charles, 

Duke of Brunswick. Issue : 
Charlotte Augusta of Wales, bom March 7, 1796. Married Leopold, son of 

Francis, Duke of Saxe Coburg Saalfield, died in childbirth, November 6, 

1817. 
Ascended the throne, January 29, 1820. 
Crowned, July 19, 1821. 
Died, June 26, 18:30. 

George Augustus Frederick, eldest son of George III. and 
his qneen Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg Strelitz, was born 
in London, August 12, 1702. He was educated witli great care 
and closely restrained until his eighteenth year, when he com- 
menced a career of extravagance and profligacy that contrasted 
painfully with the npright life of his father. lie early formed 
a connection with Mrs. Mary Robinson, an actress and wife of 
an attorney, who afterward became well-known by her novels 
and other writings. He also became intimate with Fox, Sheri- 
dan, and other Whig leaders, who were his companions in dissi- 
pation, and whose politics he adopted in open opposition to his 
father. In 17S3 his friends came into power as the famous 
coalition ministry, and on November 11th of that year he took 
his seat in the House of Lords as Duke of Cornwall, and as a 
supporter of the new administration, when they immediately 
demanded for him an augmented establishment and allowance, 
and Carlton House was assigned to him as a residence. When 
his friends lost office, he stood by and tried to restore them 
to power. 

In 1785 he was privately married to Mrs. Fitzherbert. There 
was no doubt about this marriage, but it was illegal without the 
consent of the king, and she being a Koman Catholic, the mar- 
riage, if valid, would have excluded him from the succession. 
When it was referred to in Parliament in the debate on the 
prince's debts, Fox denied it, as he said, on the highest au- 
thority; after so strong a denial, his debts were paid to the 
amount of £100,000. 

In 1791 a difference arose between the prince and his sporting 



1830.] GEORGE IV. 545 

companions. . He sold his horses, shut up Carlton House, and 
devoted himself to the payment of his debts, and in a speech 
in the House of Lords separated himself from his old political 
friends. 

Seven years afterward he agaiii applied to Parliament for 
relief, as he found himself £700,000 in debt. The only terms 
on which he could get assistance were, that he should many 
legally, and the king had chosen a wife for him in the person 
of his cousin, the Princess Caroline of Brunswick, whom he 
had never seen. Lord Malmesbury arranged the negotiation, 
but unwisely suppressed what he saw clearly himself, the entire 
unfitness of the lady for the position she was to occupy. He 
found her frivolous, slovenly, ill-educated, and cjuite deficient 
in tact ; it was impossible that she should prove otherwise than 
distasteful to any refined gentleman, and an alliance between 
a reckless voluptuary and such a woman could only have one 
ending. 

Malmesbury did his duty in offering her advice, especially on 
the toilet, cleanliness, and delicacy in speaking — strange subjects 
of discussion with a lady who might be Queen of England. 

The destined biide and the ambassador set out at last for the 
Court of St. James's, and on April 5, 1795, their arrival was 
notified to the king and Prince of Wales. The princess was 
introduced to the prince, who came alone to receive her. She 
attempted to kneel, as she was instructed ; he raised her grace- 
fully enough and embraced her, said barely one word, turned 
round, retired to a distant part of the apartment, and, calling to 
his equerry, said, " I am not well, get me a glass of brandy." 
He recommended water, and the prince exclaiming " Ko ! " with 
an oath, rushed away to the queen. Well might Caroline in- 
quire in astonishment, "Is the prince of ten like that ? " The 
marriage took place three days afterward, and his debts were paid. 

After they had lived together a year, during which time their 
only child, the Princess Charlotte, was born, they separated by 
mutual consent ; anxious for a complete divorce he endeavored 
to prove his wife unfaithful. About this time he had returned 
to the association of Fox and his old political friends, and he 
was made a rallying centre for the Whigs, while the Tories nat- 
35 



546 GEORGE IV. [1820. 

iirally clung to the princess who had also the sympathy of the 
kino;. Under these circumstances took place the first investiga- 
tion by Parliament into her conduct. 

The principal decisions of the investigation which were made 
public acquitted the princess fully, althougli the tpiestion was 
made a matter of political dispute. It seems that at most she was 
guilty of imprudent acts only while in England. Her father-in- 
law always protected her, not only because he had arranged the 
marriage, but also because he hated her husband. 

It was not until he became regent that the prince assumed 
political importance. 

Upon the accession of George lY., January 20, 1S20, there 
were the same ministers in the Cabinet as those which formed 
the administi-ation of the Earl of Liverpool at the close of the 
war, with the exception of Mr. Caimiiig, who in 1810) succeeded 
the Earl of Buckingluimshire as President of the Poard of Con- 
trol. 

The statutes of AVilliam and of Anne provided that the de- 
mise of the sovereign should not interfere with the regular 
course of constitutional government. Under these statutes the 
Parliament, although adjourned until February 15th, assembled 
on Sunday morning, January 30th, and adjourned until the fol- 
lowing day, and then proceeded to the swearing in of its mem- 
bers. On February ITth, both Houses liaving asseml>led, a 
message was delivered from tlie king, recommending that such 
measures should be adopted by the House of Commons as were 
necessary to provide for the exigencies of tlie pul)]ic service 
duriuii; the sliort period that nnist elapse between the termina- 
tion of the present session and the opening of a new parliament, 
which it was his Majesty's intention to call without delay. 

Both Houses of Parliament sat until February 2Nlh, M'hen 
they were prorogued by commission, with a view of immediate 
dissolution. The speech from the throne alluded to the flagrant 
and. sanguinary conspiracy which had lately been detected. 

The (,^ato Street conspiracy was discovered immediately after 
the ac^cession. A conspiracy had been formed having in view 
the murder of all the ministers iu a body at a Cabinet dinner to 
be gi\'en by Lord Ilarrowby on February 23d ; the assassina- 



1S20.] GEORGE IV. 547 

tion was to be followed bj an attempt to burn the barracks and 
to rouse the people to riot, and an assault upon the Bank of Eng- 
land, tlie Tower, and other public buildings. As the ministry 
were ^vell informed of the plot, the dinner was postponed, with- 
out the knowledge of the conspirators, and they were arming 
themselves in a stable in Cato Street, near Edgeware Koad, when 
the police came upon them. 

The capture was badly managed. Thistlewood, who was the 
soul of the conspiracy, with fourteen others, contrived to escape; 
the rest, nine in number, were captured. Early the next morn- 
ing, however, Thistlewood was captured. lie and four others 
were executed ; five more transported for life. The conspiracy 
for a time was the all-absorbing topic, until its interest was lost 
on the subject connected with Queen Caroline being brought be- 
fore the House of Conmions. 

Tlie king opened the new session of Parliament April 27, 
1820. lie had a brief populai"ity on declaring that he left en- 
tirely to the disposal of Parliament his interest in the hereditary 
revenues, and that he had no wish that any addition whatever 
should be made to the settlement adopted by Parliament in 
181G. 

Amidst this sunshine a little cloud was seen from afar : some 
members of the opposition began again to call attention to the 
position of the queen. 

Whatever may have been her folly or her guilt, no one can 
question her misfortune. Giddy by nature, and badly educated, 
she had been forced, against her will, upon a man whose innnoral 
and selfish character wholly unfitted him for his position as the 
husband of a frivolous and unwise wife. Prom the very first 
he seems to have de^ermined to part from her. She was early 
sent into a sort of banishment at Blackheath ; a watch Avas set 
upon her conduct; an investigation before the Lords was set on 
foot, and, though declared innocent of any grave offence, dis- 
gusted at such treatment, she unwisely left for the continent. 
She was followed in her retirement by emissaries, to collect evi- 
dence against her, unknown to herself. 

When her husband came to the throne, and her name was 
omitted from the Liturgy, this last insult aroused her to action. 



54:8 GEORGE IV. [1820. 

She returned to England in June, 1820, and was well received 
by the people, who considered her a persecuted woman. Slie 
took up her residence at the house of Alderman Wood, in South 
Audley Street. On the same evening a message from the king 
was presented to both Houses, announcing her arrival, and stat- 
ing that his Majesty had thought it right to communicate certain 
papers, respecting the conduct of her Majesty since she left tliis 
country. The sealed papers were laid on the tables of each House. 

In the House of Lords it was agreed that the papers should 
be referred to a secret committee. In the Commons, previous 
to taking into consideration the king's message, Mr. Brougham, 
as her Majesty's attorney-general, presented a connimnication 
from the queen, in which she stated that she had returned to 
England in consequence of measures pursued against her honor 
and her peace by agents abroad. 

On Api'il 15th a proposition was made on the part of the 
king, and it was agreed that two confidential servants of his 
Majesty should meet two appointed by the queen, to frame an 
arrangement for settling the necessary particulars of her ]\Iajes- 
ty's future situation, upon the condition of her residence abroad. 
The Duke of Wellington and Lord Castlereagh were appointed 
on the part of the king, and Mr. Brougham and Mr. Denman 
on the part of the queen. This negotiation failed through the 
want of concession on either side on one point alone : the queen 
insisting on the insertion of her name in the Liturgy, which was 
refused by the king. The name and rights of a queen were 
granted to her Majesty without reserve ; a royal yacht and 
frigate were offered, and it was agreed that her name and rank 
should be notified at the court either of Rome or Milan, the 
capitals of the countries in which she intended to reside. On 
June 19th it was announced to Parliament that this negotiation 
had failed. 

On July 4th, the secret committee of the Lords made its 
report, declaring that the evidence affecting the honor of the 
queen was such as to require a strict inquiry, which might be 
best effected by the course of a legislative proceeding. Lord 
Liverpool then proposed a bill of pains and penalties, which had 
for its object " to deprive her Majesty, Queen Caroline Amelia 



1820-1.] GEORGE IV. 549 

Elizabeth, of tlie title, prerogatives, rights, privileges, and ex- 
emptions of queen consort of this realm, and to dissolve the 
marriage between his Majesty and the said Caroline," and on 
July IT, 1820, coinnieuced what is popularly known as the 
Queen's Trial. 

The principal charge -was " that her Royal Highness had con- 
ducted herself toward Eartolomeo Bergaini, a foreigner en- 
gaged in her service in a menial situation, both in public and 
private, with indecent and offensive familiarity and freedom, 
and carried on with him a licentious, disgraceful, and adulterous 
intercourse." After a long debate, in which Mr. Brougham 
displayed great power and fertility of mind, the bill was pro- 
posed to be read a third time, and then to be sent to the Com- 
mons. On a division, it was found the government's majority 
had dwindled down, and the vote stood : ayes, 108 ; nays, 90. 
With such a small majority, and considering the present state 
of the country, the ministry decided to withdraw" the bill. 
There was great joy throughout the land at the termination of 
these proceedings. On l^ovember 29th Parliament was pro- 
rogued. 

In the next session of Parliament there were violent discus- 
sions on her Majesty's affairs, particularly on her continued ex- 
clusion from the Liturgy. An annuity of £50,000 was provided 
for her by act of Parliament. Her popularity gradually de- 
clined, and she was now hardly named in society or the news- 
papers. 

The coronation of George IV. took place at Westminster on 
July 19, 1821. Caroline insisted on being crowned with him, 
and on having her name inserted in the Liturgy. This M^as 
refused. She presented herself at the abbey, but was denied 
admittance. 

This disappointment, added to the excitement which she had 
already undergone, was her death-blow. On August 3d she 
was attacked by inflammatory disease, and died on the Tth, in 
the fifty-second year of her age. Her funeral was attended 
wdth riots ; the mob compelled the procession to pass through 
the city, where two persons were shot by the military. The 
remains were then conveyed to Brunswick for burial. 



550 GEORGE IV. [1823. 

The king had departed for Dublin Angust 1st, and received 
at Holyhead the intelligence of the queen's death, which termi- 
nated his domestic trouble. 

The session of Parliament was opened by the king in person 
February 5, 1822. 

In the speech from the throne he said : " I continue to receive 
from foreign powers the strongest assurances of theii- friendly 
disposition. In my visit to Ireland I derived the sincerest gra- 
tification from the loyalty and attachment manifested by all 
classes of my subjects, and believe my presence there had been 
productive of very beneficial effects, although it was a matter of 
the deepest concern to me that a spirit of outi-age in some parts 
of that country had led to daring and systematic violations of 
the law." 

The commerce and manufactures of the kingdom were flour- 
isliing, but the agricultural interest was greatly depressed. 

The debates of this session were uninteresting, and only in 
regard to local matters. 

On August 10, 1822, the king embarked at Greenwich for 
the purpose of visiting Scotland, and on the ISth he landed at 
Leith. His reception was most cordial and sincere. lie held his 
levees in llolyrood House, and dressed in the Highland costume 
of " the Eoyal Stuarts." 

The progress of liberal opinions was making itself felt in 
England ; the ministry had to go with the current, and the king- 
was greatly perplexed. The foreign policy of Canning, decidedly 
opposed to the Holy Alliance, was detestable to him. When the 
French army entered Spain to restore absolutism, England was 
greatly excited, and nothing but financial considerations pre- 
vented war with France. 

Lord Wellesley, a favorite of Catholic claims, was made Lord 
Lieutenant of Ireland. He attemj)ted, in the midst of the wild 
excitement then existing, to follow a cool and impartial policy, 
l)ut he pleased neither of the two principal parties, and became 
unpopular. The Catholic party in Ireland, under O'Connell, 
set on foot the great organization known as the Catholic Asso- 
ciation, wldch, while it held aloof from the other secret socie- 
ties, was inspired as completely with fanaticism as any of its 



1821] GEORGE IV. 551 

predecessors liad been. Its principal object was tlie pi-eparatioii 
of petitions to Parliament to proenre the relief and removal of 
tlie civil disabilities of Ilonian Catholics, and it soon reached a 
point when the ministry had to choose between concessions and 
civil war. George III. had declared that he never would con- 
sent to the admission of Homan Catholics into Parliament, and 
his illness had been attributed to the subject having been forced 
upon his attention by Mr. Pitt. 

During tlie life of that sovereign, therefore, the Catholics 
abandoned all hope of relief ; but the case was different on the 
accession of George lY. After the death of Mr. Pei-ceval, in 
1812, the Catholic question became an open one in the Cabinet. 
Canning distinguished himself as an advocate of relief, and the 
subject was frequently debated in Parliament, but nothing was 
done. In 1825 a relief bill, introduced by Sir Francis Burdett, 
passed the Commons, upon which the Duke of York went down 
to the House of Lords and took a solemn oath that in case he 
should succeed to the crown he would permit no change. The 
bill was rejected by the Lords. 

In 1823 the old navigation laws passed in Cromweirs time 
were repealed ; they provided that the goods of Asia, Africa, 
and America could be brought to England in English iships 
only. JSTotwithstanding the grumbling from shipowners, it was 
soon found the amount of tonnage steadily increased ; and the 
independence of the Spanish American colonies was effectually 
promoted in this year. 

Lord Sidmouth retired from the Home Office and was suc- 
ceeded by Mr. Peel ; the suicide of Lord Castlei'eagh created 
another vacancy in the Cabinet. Mr. Canning was now a lead- 
ing man in the House of Connnons ; the East India Company 
had offered him the Governor-generalship of India, and he was_ 
preparing to depart when the king was forced to waive his 
antipathy to liim, and asked him to enter the Cabinet as Secre- 
tary of Foreign Affairs, which he accepted, and he became 
leader of the House of Commons. 

Canning followed Pitt's principles of commercial freedom 
and financial reform, and they were put in practice by IIus- 
kisson, who became president of the Board of Trade. 



552 GEORGE IV. [1824-7. 

The prosperity of tlie country steadily continued. Peel led 
the way in ameliorating the criminal law ; Brougham labored 
in the cause of education, and the work of Catholic emancipa- 
tion went vigorously forward. 

The year 1824: was a year of great material prosperity, but 
was followed by a crash in 1825, 

The Burmese war began in 1824, continued two years, and 
ended with a considerable accession to the Britisii territory on 
the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. 

Great iinancial troubles extended over England at the com- 
mencement of 182G ; in six weeks between sixty and seventy 
banks had stopped payment. The misery attendant on these 
disasters was so great that government had to come forward 
with assistance. 

The bank and the mint set hard to work to supply notes and 
coin, and one hundred and fifty thousand sovereigns a day were 
turned out for some time. By the end of the year the worst of 
the trouble was over. 

On January 5, 1827, died the Duke of York, heir apparent 
to the throne, leaving the Duke of Clarence next heir, and the 
Duke of "Wellington became Commander-in-chief of the army. 

Shortly afterward Lord Liverpool, who had been Prime Minis- 
ter since 1812, w^as seized by apoplexy and incapacitated from 
farther attention to public business. The contest that followed 
for the premiership ended in the triumph of Mr. Canning, Avho 
became First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Ex- 
cliequer, whereupon the Duke of Wellington, Mr. Peel, and Lord 
Eldon resigned, and Sir J. Copley, now created Lord Lyndhurst, 
became Lord Chancellor. 

Kothing of importance, however, was done in Mr. Canning's 
.short administration, as he died on August Stliof the same year, 
lie had to endure trying personal attacks, as by many of the 
aristocracy he was regarded as an adventurer and an upstart. 
Ilis death was caused by anxiety and vexation no less than by 
a cold caught at the funeral of the Duke of York. lie was 
privately buried in Westminster Abljey, and was succeeded in 
the premiership by Mr. Pobinson, afterward Lord Goderich, 
whose administration, like the preceding one, lasted only a few 



1837-8.] GEORGE IV. 553 

months. Tlie only important event that occurred in it was the 
battle of ISTavarino, and the establishment of the Greek inde- 
pendence. The canse of Greece was supported, from different 
views, by Russia, France, and England, which powers had 
squadrons cruising in the Levant, that of the English being un- 
der command of Sir Edward Codrington. War had not been 
declared ; the Turkish and Egyptian fleets, under Ibrahim 
Pasha, lay in the Bay of JN^avarino, and there was an under- 
standing that it should remain there till the affairs of Greece 
were arranged. The Turks having attempted to violate this 
agreement, a general engagement ensued, October 27, 1S27, and 
the Turkish and Egyptian fleets, were completely destroyed. 
Greece was then erected into a separate kingdom, and the crown 
was eventually conferred (in 1832) on Prince Otho, a younger 
son of the King of Bavaria. 

The differences in financial mattei's between Mr. Ilerries, the 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Iluskisson, Secretary of 
State for the Colonies, could not be reconciled by Lord Goderich, 
and he therefore tendered his resignation to the king, January 
9, 1828. His Majesty immediately sent for Lord Lyndhurst 
and the Duke of Wellington to come to Windsor, and a Cabinet 
was formed — the duke as First Lord of the Treasury, Lynd- 
hurst retaining his old oflice, and Peel as Home Secretary. 

A great parliamentary^ struggle was at hand, in 1828, which 
was the prelude to a still more important conflict in 1829. 
This was Lord John Busseirs motion, on February 26th, for a 
committee of the whole house to consider so much of the acts 
of the 13th and 25th of Charles II., as requires persons, before 
admission into any office under the crown, to receive the sacra- 
ment of the Lord's supper, according to the practice of the 
Church of England. 

The motion was opposed by Huskisson, Pahnerston, and 
Peel; nevertheless it was carried on a division by a majority of 
forty-four. The ministry considered they would not be justi- 
fied in abandoning the service of the crown, and made a com- 
promise that a declaration should be substituted in place of the 
sacramental test, which was agreed to. 

On July 5, 1828, Mr. O'Connell was elected for Clare to the 



554 GEORGE IV. [182S 9. 

Imperial Parliament ; the great agitator did not take liis seat, 
for the session was nearly at an end. 

The Duke of Wellington in the course of the debate, in May, 
1820, said: "It is now well known, that during the whole of the 
last summer and autunm, I liad those measures in contempla- 
tion which have been since brought into effect. It is also well 
known that my principal object, and that to which all my efforts 
were directed, Avas to prevail upon the person in these kingdoms 
the most interested of all others, from his situation, in the settle- 
ment of the Homan Catholic question, to give his consent to its 
being brought forward.'' 

Peel, the next influential member of the ministry, had since 
the election of O'Connell, arrived at the conclusion that the solu- 
tion of the question could no longer be postponed, and that only 
one form of solution was possible. The election of Catholics, 
while still unable to sit in Parliament, would deprive Ireland of 
its representation. So inq^ortant an event as O'Connell's elec- 
tion, conld not possibly pass nnnoticed and the question be left 
unaltered. With the present House a high-handed repression 
of the association in Ireland was impossible ; were it attempted 
by a new house, a civil war would be inevitable ; there remained 
but a third course — to give way. The previous year Peel had 
told the Duke of Wellington that he considered that an attempt 
to settle the Catholic question was a lesser evil than to continue 
to leave it open ; at the same time he wished to resign, and to 
leave the bringing in of the measure to other hands. Although 
aware of the penalty he should be called upon to pay for this 
change of opinion — the attacks to which he would be subject, 
and the loss of friends — lie was at length persuaded by Welling- 
ton, who felt it inq^ossible to carry out the government withont 
him, to retain his place. 

Accordingh^, in the royal speech at the opening of Parlia- 
ment, February 5, 1S20, it was stated that measures must first 
of all be taken to establish authority, by the destruction of the 
association, and that then the whole condition of Ireland should 
be taken into consideration, with a view of altering the laws, so 
as to remove civil disabilities from his Majesty's Roman Catholic 
subjects. The speech came as a blow to the high Tories, but 



1829.] GEORGE IV. 555 

iiiiinediate cliscnssion was postponed at tlie request of the inin- 
istiy. Meanwhile the preliniinaiy measui'e for the destruction 
of the association was brought in. But its necessity was fore- 
stalled by the clever tactics of the Irish who dissolved their 
association befoi'e the bill obtained the force of law. Peel hav- 
ing declared his change of opinion, thought it incumbent on 
him to resign his seat for Oxford, which he no doubt owed to 
liis anti-Catholic views. The events of the election proved that 
he was right ; the seat was contested by Sir Hobert Inglis, who 
was elected by a large majority. Peel found a seat at West- 
bury. 

The coast seemed now clear for the great measure, but the 
king made a final stand. The very day before the bill was to 
be introduced (March 4th) he sent unexpectedly for Wellington, 
Lyndhurst, and Peel, declared lie had been misunderstood, 
M'ithdrew his sanction, and ashed what they now intended to 
do about Ireland. Peel declared that nothing now remained 
for liim but to resign. The duhe and Lord Chancellor ex- 
pressed the same .intention, and they left the presence of the 
king, who bade them a most friendly farewell, in the belief that 
the ministry was at an end. Late at night Wellington received 
a letter, in which the king said that he M'as convinced of the im- 
possibility of forming another ministiy, and begged them to 
remain. Knowing his weak character, it was only on receiving 
express leave to declare that the measure was brought in M'ith 
his consent that they agreed to remain. 

On March 5, 1829, the bill was brought before Parliament. 
It substituted a new form of oath, thus : if a Catholic bound 
himself to support the state and not injure the church, he could 
sit in either House of Parliament, had a perfect equality with 
his Protestant neighbors, and was eligible for all offices, civil, 
military, or municipal, with the exception of the ofiice of Pe- 
gent, of Lord Chancellor, of Viceroy of Ireland, or Royal Com- 
missioner of the General Assembly of Scotland. 

After a long debate, the bill passed by a majority of one hun- 
dred and seventy-eight in a House of four hundred and fifty- 
two. In the Lords it passed a third reading by a vote of two 
hundred and thirteen to two hundred and nine, and it became 



556 GEORGE IV. [1829-30. 

law, having received tlie royal assent on April IStli, and on 
June 2-ith Parliament was prorogued. 

The landowners, when they returned to their country man- 
sions, did not find happy faces amidst either tenants or laborers. 
The summer and autunni were wet and cold ; the harvest was 
protracted ; the crops were badly got in, and were hurried to 
market. They were found to be of very inferior quality, and 
prices suffered, consequently, a great depression. Then came the 
severest winter since 1813-14. Parliament met February 4, 
1830. The king's speech lamented that, notwithstanding the 
indication of active commerce afforded by increased exports, 
distress greatly prevailed amongst the agricultural and manu- 
facturing classes. 

The government announced its intention of considerably re- 
ducing the expenditure, and on March 15th the Chancellor 
of the Exchequer proposed the total remission of the excise 
duties on beer, cider, and leather; increased duties ou spirits 
were to supply a portion of the deficiency. 

Motions for reform of Parliament were brought forward. Mr. 
O'Connell proposed to bring in a bill to establish universal suf- 
frage, triennial parliaments, and vote by ballot, all of which were 
lost. On May Sltli a message was sent to both Houses of Par- 
liament by the king announcing his illness, and stating the in- 
convenience of signing public instruments with his own hand. 
A bill was introduced for the appointment of commissioners to 
affix the king's sign-manual by a stamp, in the king's presence, 
and by his immediate order, given by word of mouth. The 
bill received the royal assent on May 29th. On June 26th, at 
three o'clock in the morning, King George IV. expired at 
Windsor Castle, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the tenth, 
of his reign. 

It is difficult to look back upon the career of this prince, 
whose sovereignty either as regent or king formed one of the 
most important eras in the annals of the country without feel- 
ing how much his life had been one of great opportunities 
wasted and of natural powers perverted ; how the circumstances 
by which he had been surrounded from his youth were almost 
wholly injurious to his character and Ins happiness. 



1830.] WILLIAM IV. 557 

The Duke of Wellington has given a character of the monarch 
who held in dread the great captain's strong sense and inflexible 
resolution: "He was indeed," said the duke, "the most extra- 
ordinary compound of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and 
good feeling — in short, a medley of the most opposite qualities, 
with a great preponderance of good — that I ever saw in any 
character in my life." 

George TV. left no legitimate issue, and was succeeded by his 
brother, William Henry, Duke of Clarence. 

CoNTEMPORAKY KuLERs. — Fraucc : Charles X. ; Russia : 
Nicholas ; Prussia : Frederick William III. ; Austria : Francis 
I. ; Spain : Ferdinand Yll. 

William IV.— A.D. 1830-1837. 

Born, August 24, 1765. 

Ascended the throne, June 36, 1830. 

Crowned, September 8, 1831. 

Married, June 11, 1818, the Princess Adelaide, daughter of George, Duke of 

Saxe Meiningen. Issue : 
Two daughters, who died young. 
Died, June 20, 1837. 

William Henry, fifth sovereign of the Hanoverian line, and 
third son of King George IH. and his queen, Charlotte Sophia, 
of Mecklenburg Strelitz, was born in London, August 2-i, 1765. 

Prince William Henry entered the royal navy, June 15, 1779, 
as a midshipman on board H. M. Ship Prince George., which, 
being attached to Admiral Rodney's fleet, took part in two 
actions against the Spaniards. He served again in the channel 
fleet and in the fleet sent in 1781 to relieve Gibraltar. 

In 1782 he arrived in New York on board the Prince 
George; he subsequently served in the West Indies, having 
been transferred to II. M. S. 'Warvyiclc. 

In June, 1785, he was made a lieutenant, was posted in the 
following year, and appointed to command the Pegasu,% serving 
under Nelson in the West Indies. Having gone north without 
orders, he w^as punished on his return to England by confine- 
ment within the limits of the Plymouth garrison, and by being 
sent abroad again to the Halifax and West India stations. 

He returned to England in 1789, and was created Duke of 



553 WILLIAM IV. [1830. 

Clarence, and took his seat in the House of Lords on June Stli, 
and an income of £12,000 a year was settled on him by Parlia- 
ment. 

AVhen war with Spain was threatened, lie was appointed to 
the line of battle ship Valiant, of seventy-four guns, later was 
made a Rear Admiral of the Blue, and in ISOl reached the 
rank of Admiral of the Fleet. 

He seldom spoke in the House of Lords except on naval 
affairs; but he opposed the al)olitiou of the slave trade, sup- 
ported the peace of Amiens, and also the renewal of the war 
with France in 1S03, and in 1811 protested against the regency 
bill. At the close of 1813 he commanded on the Dutch coast, 
supporting Sir Thomas Graham against the French, and was 
slightly wounded. 

In 1818 he married the Princess Adelaide of Saxe Meiningen, 
On the trial of Queen Caroline he supported the king, and was 
severely handled by Mr. Brougham, the queen's attorney- 
general. 

The death of the Duke of York in 1827 made him heir 
apparent, and the Canning ministry revived for him the office 
of Lord High Admiral, which he held until September, 1828. 

Although without a seat in the Cabinet, he was foremost 
among the Supporters of Catholic emancipation. 

On June 25, 1830, both Houses of Parliament had adjourned 
until the following Monday. The death of George IV. having 
taken place early in the morning of the 2Gth, summonses were 
issued for the immediate attendance of the peers, for the pur- 
pose of taking the oath of allegiance to King William lY., 
which was administered by the Lord Chancellor, and the king 
was proclaimed with the usual form. 

It was pci'haps fortunate that the late king was succeeded by 
a man of very different character, whose simplicity and genial- 
ity speedily made him as popular as his brother had been the 
reverse. The little care with which he performed the outward 
forms of dignity shocked the older Tories. The freedom with 
which he admitted men of both parties to his table and his 
coui't seemed to promise a reign conducted on constitutional 
principles, and witliout party bias, on the part of the crown. 



1830.] WILLIAM IV. 559 

The popularity of the king was at that time of great impor- 
tance, because of the excitement of the Revohition in France, 
whicli spread rapidly over Europe, especially in Belgium, and 
met with great sympathy in England. If an unpopular mon- 
arch had been npon the throne, the crown might easily have 
been involved in the quarrel with the people, as among the 
classes which of late years had been in a constant state of 
discontent it was accepted as an example to be at once fol- 
lowed. 

The business of Parliament commenced June 20th. A mes- 
sage from the king recommended " such temporary provision 
as may be requisite for the public service in the interval that 
may elapse between the close of the present session and the 
meeting of a new Parliament." During the remaining three 
weeks of the session there was much sharp discussion in both 
Houses. In the House of Lords, Earl Grey, upon the question 
of an address to his majesty, moved, June 30th, an amendment 
to adjourn, in order to give time for the consideration of the 
civil list, and the expediency of providing a regency, but his 
motion was lost. 

On July 2od the king prorogued Parliament in person. The 
royal speech contained these flattering words : " It is with the 
utmost satisfaction that I find myself enabled to t-ongratulate 
you upon the general tranquillity of Europe." On the follow- 
ing day Parliament was dissolved by proclamation. 

With the death of the king, the chief necessity for retaining 
the Duke of Wellington in his position had disappeared, and 
the time seemed to have come for sweeping away the govern- 
ment which was bent on keeping things exactly as tliey were ; 
the dissolution of Parliament afforded the duke's enemies the 
opportunity they required. In the midst of the excitement of 
a new election, the reformers began to cover the land witli asso- 
ciations, and the elections proved disastrous to the government. 
They had lost at least fifty seats. 

In Ireland O'Connell was using all his energies in preaching 
the necessity of repeal of the Union, and heaping fierce and un- 
meaning hatred against the government. He had re-established 
the association under the name of the " Friends of Ireland," 



560 WILLIAM IV. [1S30, 

and when tlie Lord Lieutenant declared this illegal, it assumed 
a new form, as the Society of Irish Volunteers. 

In October it was found necessary in Tipperary to employ the 
military for suppressing an outbreak. In London, too, the old 
demagogues began to make their appearance. Meanwhile the 
ministry took no step to declare its intention, and made no ad- 
vance toward strengthening itself by union with any other party. 

On September 15, 1830, a number of guests, among whom 
was the Duke of Wellington, were asked to attend the opening 
of the first great railway in England, running between Liver- 
pool and Manchester. Several gentlemen left their seats, and a 
mutual friend brought Iluskisson to the carriage where the 
duke sat, to attempt a reconciliation. Suddenly a train came 
up upon the other line ; Iluskisson fell, was struck by the en- 
gine,'and was so severely injured that he died within a few hours. 

The formal commencement of the ninth Parliament of the 
United Kingdom had taken place October 2Gth. The members 
of both Houses had taken the customary oaths ; Mr. Manners- 
Sutton had been re-elected Speaker. 

On November 2d King William opened the Parliament in 
person. Never had public expectation been so roused to dis- 
cuss the probable tone of the king's speech ; never was one of 
the great parties more exultant, or the other more indignant, 
than when it was intimated that a reform in Parliament would 
have no sanction from the government. 

In the House of Lords, Lord Grey, in speaking on the address 
in answer to the speech from the throne, said, " The only mode 
to avert from this country the dangers which are apprehended 
from' the political convulsions of Europe is to secure the affec- 
tions of the people, to redress their grievances, and, my lords, I 
will pronounce the word, by reform in Parliament." 

The Duke of Wellington, in answer, said that the legislature 
and the system of representation possessed the full and entire 
confidence of the country. He was not prepared to bring for- 
ward any measure of the description alluded to by the noble 
lord, and he would also declare that so long as he held any sta- 
tion in the government, he should feel it his duty to resist such 
measures when proposed by others. 



1S31.] WILLIAM IV. 561 

In tlie House of Commons Mr. Brougham gave notice that it 
was his intention on that day fortnight to bring the great ques- 
tion of a reform of the Commons' House of Parliament fully 
under consideration. His object was not revolution, but restora- 
tion. On that day fortnight the government of the Duke of 
Wellington and Sir Robert Peel was at an end. 

At such a crisis it was impossible that a.nj statesman except 
Lord Grey should be intrusted with the formation of a cabinet. 
He found no difficulty in selecting his ministers. The Chancel- 
lorship of the Exchequer was given to Lord Althorpe ; Lord 
Lansdowne was President of the Council ; Lambton, now become 
Lord Din-ham, was Lord Privy Seal ; the secretaryships M^ere 
supplied from the ranks of the Canningites — Palmerston, Mel- 
bourne, and Goderich were respectively Foreign, Home, and 
Colonial Secretaries. Holland, Auckland, and Graham were also 
in the Cabinet. Li office, but not in the Cabinet, were Lord 
John Pussell, as Paymaster-General, and Mr. Stanley, afterward 
Lord Derby, as Secretary for Ireland. 

On February 3, 1831, when Parliament reassembled, the in- 
tention of the ministry to produce a measure of parliamentaiy 
reform was made known, and the day for its introduction was 
fixed for March 1st. 

The bill was introduced on that day by Lord John Pussell, 
and after a long and violent debate the ministry were defeated. 
On April 21st they advised the king to dissolve Parliament, 
which he did the following day. That night London was illu- 
minated, by the sanction of the Lord Mayoi-, and was attended 
with much rioting, the mob attacking the houses of the Duke 
of Wellington and other anti-reformers. 

The appeal to the people was signally triumphant, and on 
the meeting of the new Parliament, June 14th, the ministers 
found themseU^es with a majority of one hundred and thirty- 
six. Mr. Manners-Sutton was chosen Speaker for the sixth 
time. The king went in state to the House of Lords on the 
21st, and in his speech from the throne recommended the im- 
portant question of reform in the representation to the earliest 
and most attentive consideration of Parliament. 

On June 21:th, Lord John Russell again brought forward the 
36 



562 WILLIAM IV. [1831-3. 

Reform Bill, Avith a few alterations. After tliirtj-nine sittings 
of the committee, it was brought before the House for its third 
reading, and on September 21st passed the Commons by a 
majority of one hundred and thirty-six votes. 

It was still, however, violently opposed by a powerful party 
in the state who regarded tlie bill as an attack upon their pri- 
vate property — for it was notorious that estates commanding 
the nomination of a member of Parliament held a price very 
far above their intrinsic value. 

When the bill was brought up to the House of Lords, it was 
rejected, October Tth, by a majority of forty-one, after five 
nights' debate. This step was followed by disgraceful riots. 
In London the populace were controlled by the police, and con- 
tented themselves by breaking the windows of obnoxious anti- 
reformers; but in several of the provincial towns fearful. dis- 
turbances ensued. 

At Nottingham the ancient castle, the residence of the Duke 
of Newcastle, was burned ; at Derby the jail was forced and the 
prisoners liberated ; whilst at Bi-istol, where the riots lasted 
several days, many of the public buildings were destroyed by 
fire on October 29th, and about one hundred persons killed or 
seriously Avounded. 

Ireland was also in a disturbed condition. After the emanci- 
pation of the Catholics had deprived O'Connell of the means of 
collecting the " rent " and of securing himself an income from 
the pockets of the poor Irish, he had raised the cry for the re- 
peal of the union, and tlie most frightful nocturnal disorders, 
and even mid-day murders, became frequent. To add to the 
confusion and misery, England was visited this autumn, for the 
first time, by the cholera. 

Both Houses of Parliament assembled December 6, 1831, 
and the king's speech recommended a careful consideration of 
the measures to l)e proposed for the reform of Parliament. 
After prolonged debate, the Reform Bill again passed the Com- 
mons in March, 1S32, by a majority of 116. On March 26th 
the bill was carried to the House of Lords. 

The peers now displayed more disposition to j'ield, but as it 
was evident the bill would be mutilated in committee, Lord 



1S33.] WILLIAM IV. 563 

Grey proposed to tlie king the creation of a sufficient number 
of peers to carry it tLrough. The king demurring, the minis- 
ters resigned, and the Duke of Wellington was instructed to 
form a Cabinet ; this he could not accomplish. The king was 
now obliged to yield at discretion, and recalled his former min- 
isters. On May 15th they returned to office with a reluctant 
promise from the king to create a number of peers. Lord 
Brougham requested permission to have the promise in writing. 
The words of this document were as follows : " The kino- m-ants 
permission to Earl Grey and to his Chancellor, Lord Brougham, 
to create such a number of peers as will be sufficient to insure 
the passing of the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest 
sons." The power of creating peers was not required. The 
king, through his influence with the opposition peers, induced 
them either to absent themselves from the House or desist from 
further attempts to arrest the course of the bill ; whereupon it 
passed the Lords by a majority of 8-i, and received the royal 
assent June 7, 1832. 

The main principle of the Reform Bill was that boroughs hav- 
ing a less population than two thousand should cease to return 
members, and that those having a less population than four 
thousand should cease to return more than one member. By 
this bill fifty-six boroughs were totally disfranchised, and thirty- 
one more lost one of their members. The total number of old 
borough members thus disfranchised was one hundred and forty- 
three. Their seats were transferred to several large towns, such 
as Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and others which had 
grown into importance during the last century. Between forty 
and fifty new boroughs were created, including the four meti-o- 
politan boroughs of Marjdebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamlets, 
and Lambeth, each of the last returning two members. 

An aristocratic counterpoise seemed in some degree to be es- 
tablished by the additions to the county members. The larger 
counties were divided into districts, and while previously there 
had been fifty-two constituencies, returning ninety-four mem- 
bers, there were now eighty-two constituencies, returning one 
hundred and fifty-nine members. But, on the other hand, both 
the county and borough franchises were extended. In the comi- 



564 WILLIAM IV. [1832-3. 

ties the old 40/ freeliolds were retained, and three new classes 
of voters were introduced : first, copyholders of £10 per an- 
num ; second, leaseholders of the annual value of £10 for a 
term of sixty years, or of the annual value of £50 for a terra 
of twenty j-ears ; third, occupying tenants paying an annual 
rent of £50. In boroughs the franchise was given to all £10 
resident householders, subject to certain conditions. Such were 
the principal features of this bill, which formed the greatest revo- 
lution the country had experienced since the revolution of 1688. 

The disturbances in Ireland had now reached a frightful 
pitch. It had become impossible to collect tithe ; the collectors 
were murdered or mutilated ; there were regular engagements 
between the police and the peasantry, and the Protestant clergy 
were almost starving. To remedy this state of things, the gov- 
ernment introduced a coercion bill, which, while it provided a 
remedy for many of the grievances complained of, enabled the 
Lord Lieutenant to prevent all public meetings of a dangerous 
character, and to place disturbed districts under martial law. 

Parliament was prorogued August 16th, and dissolved by pro- 
clanuition December 3d. 

The elections under the new Reform Bill were all over before 
the end of the year, and the dreaded reform Parliament was to 
meet January 29, 1833. The Whigs had a lai-ge majority, 
but, besides an active and important body of Tories, headed by 
Sir Robert Peel, there was a considerable number of Radicals, 
of whom Joseph Hume may be regarded as the leader, together 
with the Irish members — for the most part the mere nominees 
and puppets of O'Connell — from whom opposition might be 
expected. 

The king opened Parliament February 5tli. Mr. Manners- 
Sutton was again elected Speaker for his great parliamentary 
experience, as the new House was composed of a large number 
of members unaccustomed to parliamentary usage ; and as the 
government proposed to introduce a number of very important 
measures, it was found necessary to lengthen the hours of busi- 
ness. 

Fears began to be entertained that the church, the aristocracy, 
and all the older institutions, would be swept away ; but a strong 



1S33-4.] WILLIAM IV. 565 

conservative spirit still existed in the nation. Sir Robert Peel, 
whom the Tory party had now forgiven and again treated as 
their leader, revived their desponding spirits, introduced an 
admirable organization into the party, and pointed out that a 
return to political power was still far from impossible. This 
party dropping the name of Tory, now called themselves Con- 
servatives. 

Several important measures were now brought before Parlia- 
ment, A bill passed, August 30th, for the emancipation of tlie 
slaves in the West Indian colonies, and the planters were re- 
munerated by a vote of the enormous gift of £20,000,000. 
Wilberforce, the father of the bill, lived long enough to hear 
that it had passed its second reading, and died July 21), 1833. 

The charters of the Bank of England and the East India 
Company were renewed, and discussions on the state of the 
church, other local matters, and the poor law question being re- 
served for the following session. 

When Parliament met, therefore, January, 1834, the great 
measure of the session was the passing of the act for the amend- 
ment and better administration of the laws relating to the poor 
in England and Wales. The annual amount of the poor-rate 
at the close of the American war, in 1783, was £2,132,487 ; in 
half a century the amount had risen to £8,606,501 ; the popula- 
tion had increased seventy-five per cent., and the levy had in- 
creased three hundred per cent. 

In April Mr. O'Connell brought before the House a motion 
for a repeal of the union between Great Britain and Ireland, 
which he lost, on a division, by a vote of 123 to 38. 

On May 27th, Mr. Ward, member of St. Albans, brought 
forward the resolutions, that the Protestant Episcopal Church 
of Ireland much exceeded the spiritual wants of the Protestant 
population ; that it was the right of the State, and of Parlia- 
ment, to distribute church property, and that the tempoj-al 
possessions of the Irish church ought to be reduced. 

The ministers determined to adopt a middle course and ap- 
point a commission of inquiry ; they hoped thereby to indnce 
Mr. Ward to withdraw his motion, because the question was 
already in gO:vernmeut hands. 



5GG WILLIAM IV. [1834. 

While the negotiations were going on, news was received of 
the resignation of four of the most conservative members of the 
Cabinet, who regarded any interference with church property 
with abhorrence ; they were Mr. Stanley, Sir James Graham, 
the Duke of Kichmond, and the Eai-l of Ripon. Xo ditficulty 
was found in filling their places ; Mr. Spring Rice became 
Secretary for the Colonies ; Lord Auckland, First Lord of the 
Admiralty ; the Marquis of Conyngham, Postmaster-General ; 
and the Earl of Carlisle, Lord Privy Seal. 

Owing to the difference of opinion in the Cabinet on the Irish 
coercion bill, on July 9, 1834, Earl Grey placed his resignation 
as Prime Minister in the hands of the king. On the 10th the 
House of Commons adjourned for four days. On the 14th, 
Viscount Melbourne stated in the House of Lords that his 
Majesty had honored him with his commands for the formation 
of a ministry. He had undertaken the task, but it was not yet 
completed. 

There was very little change in the Cabinet ; Lord Melbourne's 
place in the Home Department was filled by Lord Duncannon ; 
Sir John Cam Hobhouse obtained a seat as First Connnissioner 
of Woods and Forests, and Lord Carlisle surrendered the Privy 
Seal to Lord Mulgrave. 

The Irish Church Bill was again brought forward, and al- 
though it passed the Connnons, was defeated in the Lords, 
August 1st. 

The king much disliked the church j)olicy of the Whigs, and 
dreaded reform. He was eager to prevent the meeting of the 
House, and circumstances favored him. Before the session Lord 
Spencer died, and Lord Althorpe, his son, was thus removed to 
the upper House. There was no reason why this should have 
broken up the ministry, but the king seized the opportunity, 
sent for Lord Melbourne, asserted that the ministry depended 
chiefly on the personal influence of Lord Althorpe in the Com- 
mons, declared that, deprived of it as it now was, the govern- 
ment could not go on, and dismissed his ministers, instructing 
Melbourne at once to send for the Duke of Wellington. 

The sensation in London was great ; the dismissal of the 
ministry was considered unconstitutional ; the act of the king 



IS34-5.] WILLIAM IV. 567 

was wliollj without precedent — there was no disunion in the 
Cabinet. The ministry had retained the confidence of Parlia- 
ment np to the last day of the session ; they had pressed no 
opinions upon his Majesty, which could be disagreeable to him. 

The Duke of Wellington, from November 15th to December 
9th, was the First Lord of the Treasury, and the sole Secretary 
of State, having only one colleague. Lord Lyndhurst, who held 
the great seal, while at the same time he sat as Chief Baron of 
the Court of Exchequer. This temporary government was called 
a dictatorship. 

The majority of the people, whose zeal for a continued course 
of improvement, knew perfectly well, that what was called a 
Conservative government could not meet the present Parliament ; 
there must be a dissolution to afford them any chance of con- 
tinuing in oifice. 

On Sir Robert Peel's return from Italy, whence he had been 
called, he waited upon the king and accepted the office of First 
Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. With 
the king's permission, he applied to Lord Stanley and Sir James 
Graham, entreating them to give him the benefit of their co- 
operation as colleagues in the Cabinet. They both declined. 
Prevented from forming a moderate Conservative ministry, he 
was reduced to fill his places with men of more pronounced 
opinions, which promised ill for any advance in reform. As 
the result. Peel was Premier, First Lord of the Treasury, and 
Chancellor of the Exchequer ; the Foreign, Home, War, and 
Colonial offices were filled by Wellington, Goulburn, Llerries, 
and xVberdeen ; Lord Lyndhurst was Lord Chancellor ; Harding, 
Secretary for L-eland ; and Lord Wharncliffe, Privy Seal. With 
this ministry Peel had to meet a hostile House of Commons, 
for the approach of the Conservatives to power had combined 
Whigs and Radicals in opposition. 

The Prime Minister therefore thought it necessary to dis- 
solve Parliament, and took the opportunitj^ of declaring his 
policy. He declared his acceptance of the Reform Bill as a 
final settlement of the question, and promised to carry out its 
intentions as far as they consisted in a wise and careful im- 
provement of old institutions. 



5GS WILLIAM IV. [1835. 

The elections, tliongli tliey returned a Ilonse, as is generally 
the case, more favorable to the existing government than that 
which had been dissolved, still gave a considerable majority to 
the Liberals. 

The Houses of Parliament had been destroyed by fire, Octo- 
ber 16, 1834:, and temporary accommodation had been provided 
on the old site, where the new Parliament met on February 9, 
1835, with a larger number present than had ever before col- 
lected at any one time. Six lumdred and twenty-two members 
divided on the question whether Sir Charles Manners-Sutton 
should be re-elected, or the Hight Honorable James Abercromby 
be chosen to fill the chair. The latter was elected by ten 
majority. 

The king opened the session on February 2-l:th. His speech 
expi'essed his reliance on the caution and circumspection which 
would be exercised in altering laws which affected extensive and 
complicated interests, and were interwoven with ancient usages ; 
and that, in supplying that which was defective, or renovating 
tliat which was impaired, the common object would be to 
strengthen the foundations of those institutions in church 
and state, which are the inheritance and birthright of the 
people. 

In the House of Connnons, Lord Morpeth proposed an 
amendment to the address in answer to the speech froin the 
throne, which was carried by a majority of seven in a House of 
six hundred and nine mendjers. Thus was the ministry twdce 
beaten — in the election of Speaker and in this last vote. 

" It is my first duty," said Sir Robert Peel, " to maintain the 
post which has been confided to me ; to • stand by the trust 
which I did not seek, but which I could not decline. Peceive, 
at least, the measures which I pi-opose ; amend them if they 
are defective ; extend them if they fall short of your expe(;ta- 
tions. I offer you reduced estimates, improvements in civil 
jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical law, the settlement of the 
tithe question in Ireland, the conmmtation of tithe in England, 
the removal of any abuse in the church, and the redress of 
tliOvSe grievances of which the dissenters have any just ground to 
complain. I offer you these specific measures ; I offer also to 



1835-7.] WILLIAM IV. 509 

advance, soberly and cautiously, it is true, in the path of progres- 
sive improvement." 

Lord John llussell, on April Tth, proposed the resolution, 
" That it is the opinion of this House that no measure upon the 
subject of the tithes in Ireland can lead to satisfactory and final 
adjustment which does not embody the temporalities of the 
Church in Ireland." This was adopted by a majority of twenty- 
seven, and that majority wasfatalto the nlinistr3^ On the fol- 
lowing day the Duke of Wellington, in the House of Lords, 
stated that in consequence of the resolution in the House of 
Commons, the ministry liad tendered their resignation. Sir 
Robert made a similar explanation in the Conimons. 

Ten days later. Viscount Melbourne, in moving the adjourn- 
ment of the House of Lords, stated that tlie king had been 
pleased to appoint him First Lord of the Treasury, and that he 
and his friends who had taken office had received from his Ma- 
jesty the seals of their respective departments ; that the other 
House would adjourn until May 12th, to enable ministers to 
have their re-election. 

The great measure of the session was proposed on June 5th 
by Lord John llussell. He asked, on behalf of his Majesty's 
government, leave to bring in a bill for the regulation of nnmi- 
cipal corporations in England and Wales. After a very long 
and protracted debate, and many alterations, the bill passed on 
September 7, 1835. 

One of the most important measures toward a more complete 
system of national statistics was brought forward by Lord John 
Eussell in the session of 1836. On February 12th he intro- 
duced the bill for the general registration of births, deaths, and 
marriages ; at the same time he brought in a bill fur amending 
the law regulating the marriages of dissenters, connected with 
the establishment of General Civil Registration. 

On June 20th was passed a bill reducing the newspaper 
stamp from fourpence to one penny on each paper published ; 
also the reduction of the duty on paper. 

Parliament was opened by commission on January 31, 1837. 
The most important passage in the royal speech was in reference 
to the state of the province of Lower Canada. 



570 WILLIAM IV. [1837. 

Few of the proceedings, of Parliament during the session, 
M'hich circumstances had rendered short, acquired a legislative 
completion. 

Lord John Russell proposed the government plan for intro- 
ducing poor-laws into Ireland. The dissolution of Parliament 
interrupted the pi'ogress of the bill. 

On June 9, 1837, a bulletin issued from AVindsor Castle in- 
forming a loyal and really affectionate people that the king was 
ill. From the 12th they were regularly issued until the 19th, 
when the malady, inflammation of the lungs, had greatly in- 
creased, and on that day he received the sacrament at .the hands 
of the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

On Tuesday, June 20th, the last of these official documents 
was issued. His Majesty had expired that morning at two 
o'clock. 

William died in the seventy-second year of his age and 
seventh year of his reign, leaving no legitimate issue. He was 
■succeeded by his niece, Alexandrina Victoria. 

By his mistress, Mrs. Jordati, he had five sons and five 
daughters, who were known by the name of FitzCUarence. The 
eldest son was created Earl of Munster, and was a major-general 
in the army ; the other sons held high positions, and the daugh- 
ters married among the aristocracy. 

Contemporary Hitlers. — France : Louis Philippe ; Pussia : 
ISTicholas I. ; Prussia: Frederick William III. ; Austria: Fran- 
cis I., Ferdinand ; Spain : Ferdinand VII., Isabella. 



1837.] 



VICTORIA. 



571 




Victoria — A.D. 1837. 



Bom at Kensiugton Palace, May 24, 1819. 

Succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837. 

Crowned, June 28, 1838. 

Married, February 10, 1840, to his late Royal Highness, Francis Albert Augus- 
tus Charles Emmanuel, Prince Consort, Duke of Saxony, Prince of Coburg 
and Gotha, who was born August 26, 1819 ; died December 14, 1861. 
Issue : 

1. Her Royal Highness Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Princess Royal, born 

November 21, 1840 ; married, January 25, 1858, to his Imperial Highness 

the Crown Prince of Germany, and had issue : 

Frederick William V. A., born January 27, 1859 ; V. E. A. Charlotte, 
born July 24, 1860, married February 18, 1878, to Hereditary 
Prince of Saxe Meiningen, issue, a daughter ; A. W. Henry, bom 
August 14, 1862 ; Francis, born September 15, 1864, died June 
18, 1866 ; Victoria, bom April 12, 1866 ; Waldemar, bom Feb- 
ruary 10, 1868, died March 27, 1879 ; Sophia Dorothea, bom 
June i4, 1870 ; and Margaret Beatrice, bom April 22, 1872. 

2. His Royal Highness Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, Duke of Saxony, 

Cornwall, and Rothesay, Earl of Dublin, etc., bom November 9, 1841 ; 
married, March 10, 1863, to the Princess Alexandra Caroline Mary Char- 
lotte Louisa Julia (bom December 1, 1844), eldest daughter of the King 
of Denmark. Issue : 

Albert Victor Christian Edward, born January 8, 1864 ; George Fred- 
erick Ernest Albert, born June 3, 1865 ; Louise Victoria Alexan- 
dra Dagmar, born February 20, 1867 ; Victoria Alexandra Olga 
Mary, born July 6, 1868- ; Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria, bom 
November 26, 1869 ; and Alexander J. C. A., born April 6, died 
April 7, 1871. - 



572 VICTORIA. [1837. 

3. Her Royal Highness Alice Maud Mary, bom April 25, 1843 ; married July 

1, 1862, to his Royal Highness Louis IV., Grand Duke of Hesse Darm- 
stadt (born September 12, 1837) ; died December 14, 1878. Issue : 

Victoria Alberta E. M. M. , born April 5,1803 ; Elizabeth A. Louise Alice, 
born November 1, 18G4 ; Irene Marie Louise, born July 11, 186G ; 
Ernest Louis, born November 25, 1808 ; Frederick William, bom 
October 7, 1870, died June 29, 1873 ; Victoria A. H. L. B., bom 
June 6, 1872 ; and Mary Victoria Feodore Leopoldine, born May 
24, 1874, died November 15, 1878. 

4. His Royal Highness Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh, bom August 

6, 1844 ; Rear Admiral Royal Navy ; married, January 23, 1874, to the 

Grand Duchess Marie of Russia. Issue : 

Alfred Alexander William Ernest Albert, born October 15, 1874 ; 
Marie A. V., bom October 29, 1875 ; Victoria Melita, bom No- 
vember 25, 1876 ; and A. L. Olga Victoria, born September 1, 
1878. 

5. Her Royal Highness Helena Augusta Victoria, bom May 25, 1846 ; married 

July 5, 1866, to Prince Frederick Christian Charles Augu.stus of Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. Issue : 

Christian Victor, bom April 14, 1807 ; Albert John, born February 26, 
1869 ; Victoria Louise, bom May 3, 1870 ; Franziska, born August 
14, 1872 ; and Harold, bom May 12, died May 19, 1876. 

6. Her Royal Highness Louise Caroline Alberta, born March 18, 1848 ; married 

March 21, 1871, to John, Marquis of Lome, Governor-General of Canada. 

7. His Royal Highness Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, 

born May 1, 1850 ; Lieatenant-Colonel Ritie Brigade, September 27, 1876 ; 
married, March 13, 1879, to Princess Louisa Margaret, daughter of Prince 
Frederick Charles of Prussia. 

8. His Royal Highness Leopold George Duncan Albert, born April 7, 1853. 

9. Her Royal Highness Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born April 14, 1857. 

AlexxVndrina Yictoeia, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, 
and first Empress of India, born at Kensington Palace, May 24, 
1819, was tlic only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son 
of Georo-e III. and his wife, Mary Victoria Louisa of Saxe 
Coburg Saalfeld, relict of the hereditary Prince of Leiningen. 

Her father died January 23, 1820. Keither George lY. nor 
his brothers, the Duke of York or William lY., had surviving 
legitimate issue. She became heir to the throne on the acces- 
sion of AYilliani in 1830, and her education was intrusted to 
the Duchess of j^orthumberland. 

On the death of her uncle, AVilliani lY., without issue, June 
20, 1S3T, the crown of England and Hanover, wliich had been 
worn by the same person since the succession of George I. in 



1837.] VICTORIA. 573 

1714:, were separated, tlie former devolving on tlie Princess 
Victoria, and the latter, bj virtne of the Salic law, falling to 
her nncle, Ernest Augnstus, Duke of Cumberland, fifth son of 
George III. 

It was five O'clock in the morning of June 20th when the 
doors of Kensington Palace, where the princess resided with 
her mother, were opened to the Archbishop of Canterbury, the 
Lord Chamberlain, and Sir Henry lialford, physician to the 
late king. They had come to inform the young princess that 
she was queen. 

The Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, had an audience at 
nine o'clock. At eleven the state apartments of the palace 
were filled Mnth members of the Privy Council of the late king ; 
peers, archbishops, and the Lord Mayor of London ; her uncles, 
the Duke of Cumberland, now king of Hanover, and the Duke 
of Sussex. 

The doors of the Council Chamber were opened, and Queen 
Victoria, entering with her mother, the Duchess of Kent, pale 
but perfectly self-possessed, took her seat at the head of the 
council table. The Lord Chancellor administered the oath pre- 
scribed for the sovereign's accession ; the Privy Councillors took 
the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. 

A declaration having been prepared for her by Lord Mel- 
bourne, was delivered by the young queen in a clear and im- 
posing manner : 

" The severe and afllicting loss which the nation has sus- 
tained by the death of His Majesty, my beloved uncle, has 
devolved upon me the duty of administering the government of 
this empire. This awful responsibility is imposed upon me 
so suddenly, and at so early a period of my life, that I should 
feel myself utterly oppressed by the burden were I not sustained 
by the hope that Divine Providence, which has called me to 
this work, M-ill give me the strength for the performance of it, 
and that I shall find in the purity of my intentions and in my 
zeal for the public welfare that support and those resources 
which usually belong to a more mature age and to long expe- 
rience." 

The queen's demeanor impressed every one who was present, 



574 VICTORIA. [1837. 

not only with profonnd admiration, but with a confident iiope 
of a glorious future. 

On tlie same day Queen Victoria was proclaimed in different 
parts, of the city. 

On the ITth of Jidy the queen went in state to Parliament. 
In the speech from the throne her majesty stated that amongst 
the useful measures which Parliament had brought to maturity, 
she regarded with peculiar interest the amendment of the crimi- 
nal code, and the reduction of the number of capital punish- 
ments. She hailed this mitigation of the severity of the law as 
an auspicious commencement of her reign. " It will be my 
care," she said, " to strengthen our institutions, civil and eccle- 
siastical, by discreet improvement wherever improvement is re- 
quired, and to do all in my power to compose and allay animos- 
ity and discord." 

The ministry Queen Victoria found at her accession was one 
whose general character was in harmony with the opinions in 
which she had been educated. Viscount Melbourne, the First 
Lord of the Ti-easury, was at her hand to guide and assist her 
in tlie discharge of the technical duties of lier great office. Dur- 
ing the elections, which were over early in August, the party con- 
tests assumed a tone not entirely constitutional ; for the adher- 
ents of the ministry alleged to their constituents that in sup- 
porting them they were showing their loyalty to their queen, 
while the opposite party maintained that her Majesty had 
only passively adopted the administration of her uncle which 
she had found established. But there was one feeling predomi- 
nant — that of a deep and growing attachment to the person of 
the young sovereign. 

On November 15, 1837, the new parliament met. Mr. Aber- 
cromb}^ was re-elected Speaker without opposition. On the 
20th the queen in person opened the session. The most im- 
portant paragraph in her Majesty's speech was, " I recommend 
to your serious considei-ation the state of the Province of Lower 
Canada." The discontent broke out the previous year, and 
had now assumed a regular rebellion, but it M^as put down 
the following year under the government of the Earl of Dur- 
ham, concessions having been made by the imperial govern- 



1838-40.] VICTORIA. 575 

ment and responsible government being granted to the prov- 
ince. 

The coronation of the queen took place at Westminster Ab- 
bey on June 28, 1838. The splendor which attended the coro- 
nation of George IV. was to some extent dispensed with. 

When Parliament was opened by the queen on February 
5, 1839, a passage in her speech had reference to domestic 
affairs. Her Majesty said : "I have observed with pain the 
persevering efforts which have been made in some parts of the 
country to excite my subjects to disobedience and resistance to 
the law, and to recommend dangerous and illegal pi-actices," 

Chartism, which for ten years past 'occasionally agitated the 
country, had then began to take root. 

On January 10, 1840, the penny-postage system first came 
into operation, owing to the efforts of Rowland Hill and Mr. 
Wallace. 

On the lOtli of January, of this year, the queen opened Par- 
liament. The first announcement in her speech was, " Since 
you were last assembled I have declared my intention of allying 
myself in marriage with the Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg and 
Gotlia. I humbly inq:>lore that the divine blessing may pros- 
per this union and render it conducive to the interests of my 
people as well as to my own domestic happiness, and it will be 
to me a source of the most lively satisfaction to find the resolu- 
tion I have taken approved by my Parliament." 

The preliminary measures of the legislature for the natui-ali- 
zation of Prince Albert, and for granting him an annuity, pro- 
duced some discussion ; first, upon the subject of precedence, 
and next, as to the amount of the annual sum to be granted. 
The one question was settled by omitting from the bill of natu- 
ralization all mention of precedence, the other by reducing the 
ministerial proposition of an annuity from £50,000 to £30,000. 
The distresses of the country' fully justified the decision of the 
majority, who supported the smaller sum. 

The marriage took place on Februarv 10, 1840, and it was 
celebrated by general festivities throughout the country. In 
June an attempt was made to assassinate the queen by one Ox- 
ford, who was afterward proved to be insane, and was imprisoned. 



576 VICTORIA. [1841. 

Parliament opened January 20, 184-1. This session "vras 
made memorable bj the defeat of the Whig ministry, after 
ten years of power, and by the unexpected adoption of the 
principles of "Free-Trade" by that gov^eriiment, after a long 
period of indecision, if not 'of." hostility to any vital clianges, 
especially in regard to the corn laws. On the question of sugar 
duties the ministers were defeated by a majority of thirty-six. 
On May 27tli Sir Robert Peel moved, in the 'House, "That her 
Majesty's ministers do not sntRciently possess the confidence of 
the House of Commons to enaljle them to carry through the 
House measures M'hieli they deem of essential importance to 
the public welfare.'' This resolution was carried ; ayes, 313 ; 
nays, 312. 

On June Ttli Lord John Russell stated that the ministry had 
determined to appeal to the country, and on the 22d the Parlia- 
ment was prorogued by the queen, and dissolved by proclama- 
tion the following day. 

When the new Parliament met, August 19th, it had been 
ascertained, with tolerable accuracy, that the results of the elec- 
tions were wliolly unfavc>rable to the continued existence of the 
ministry. What was called the conservative principle was not 
only triumphant over the free trade principle, boldly proclaimed 
at the last hour by the Whigs, but many of their former sup- 
porters, now known as the radical party, were either distinctly 
hostile toward the ministry, or very lukewarm in their sup- 
port. 

The parliamentary trial of strength was close at hand. Mr. 
Charles Shaw^-Lefevre was chosen Speaker without opposition. 
The queen did not open the Parliament in person ; the speech 
was read by the Lord Chancellor. 

In the House of Commons an amendment to the address was 
moved by Mr. Stuart W^ortley, to the effect that the expendi- 
ture having for several years exceeded the annual income, the 
House was convinced of the necessity of adopting measures for 
the purpose of remedying so great an evil ; " that your Majes- 
ty's government should possess the confidence of this House, 
and of the country, and respectfully to represent to your Maj- 
esty that that confidence is not reposed in the present advisers 



1841.] VICTORIA. 577 

of jOTir Majesty.'' The debate on the address was continued 
four nights. 

Sir Itobert Peel, in conduding his address, said, "If I accept 
office, it shall be by walking in the open light, and in the direct 
paths of the constitution ; if I exercise power, it shall be upon 
my conception — perhaps imperfect, perhaps mistaken^ but my 
sincere conception of public duty. That power I will not hold 
unless I can hold it consistently with the maintenance of my 
own opinions, and that power I will relinquish the moment I 
am satisiied that I am not supported in the maintenance of tliem 
by the conlidence of the House and of the people of this coun- 
try." On August 2Tth the House divided on Mr. Wortley's 
amendment ; in a House of six hundred and twenty-nine mem- 
bers, the government was in a minority of ninety-one. Her 
Majesty's answer to the amended address of the House of Com- 
mons was — "Ever anxious to listen to the advice of Parliament, 
I will take immediate measures for the formation of a new 
administration." 

The resignation of ministers was announced in both Houses 
August 30, 1841. 

The Afghan war, that commenced in 1839, was supposed to 
be over. Dost Mahomed had tied beyond the Indian Caucasus ; 
the country appeared not only subjugated to the new govern- 
ment, but tranquil and satisfied. There was a disposition to 
witlidraw the greater part of the forces, but it was finally deter- 
mined that the first division of the Bengal Infantry, with the 
13th Queen's Eegiment, should remain in Cabul, and that 
Ghnznee and Jellalabad should be occupied by native regi- 
ments. 

Dost Mahomed had again made his appearance, and had 
fought a gallant battle with the British cavalry, in M'hich lie 
obtained a partial victory. Despairing, however, of his power 
efi^ectually to resist the British arms, he wrote to Calud, and 
delivered himself up to the Envoy, Sir AYm. McXaghten, 
claiming the protection of his government. He was sent to 
India, where a place of residence was assigned to him, and a 
revenue of £30,000. In September and October the direction 
of affairs at C^abul was wholly in the hands of the Envoy. On 
37 



5Y8 VICTORIA. [1841-3. 

tlie niglit of Xoveml^er 1st there was a meeting of tlie Afghan 
chiefs, who banded together to make common cause against the 
English. A rising took phxce, and the British were attacked 
withont warning, and several were murdered. Fi'om Kovem- 
ber 2d to December 23d the position of the British became 
more perilous. There were four tliousand five hundred British 
troops in the cantonments and six hundred in the Bala Ilissar, 
McXaghten, at the beginning of December, urged General 
Elphinstone to retire from the cantonments, and place the 
remainder of the troops in that fortress, in which they would 
be in a position to overawe the populace in Cabul. 

The last alternative was to march at once to India, and, with 
the desperate courage of the lion at bay, turn upon their sur- 
rounding foes. General Sale and General Xott were expected 
with reinforcements, but they w^ere themselves hemmed in by 
enemies. 

The troops were threatened with starvation ; the camp fol- 
lowers were livino- on the carcases of camels. JSTeo-otiations 
were "'oinii; on with the Afi>;han chiefs for the safe retreat of 
the army, and for a supply of provisions. They were protracted 
from day to day, the Afghans requiring as a first condition that 
the forts in the neighborhood should be given up. They were 
evacuated, and then the enemy had them at their mercy. The 
winter was setting in ; on December 18th snow began to fall. 
On the 22d a proposal from Akbar Klian, the son of Dost Ma- 
homed, for a conference was accepted, and McXaghten, Avitli 
three friends, Lawrence, Trevor, and Mackenzie, went out ac- 
cordingly about six hundred yards, when McjSTaghten was 
treacherously murdered. 

On the 20th, Major Pottinger, who had taken the place of 
the unfortunate McXaghten, agreed to capitulate, and a treaty 
was ratified, that all the guns should be left behind except six, 
that all the treasure should be given up, and forty thousand 
rupees paid in bills, to be negotiated upon the spot, and that 
four hostages should be detained to insure the evacuation of 
Jellalabad. 

On the morning of January 0, 181:2, a day of intense cold, 
the army, consisting of four thousand five hundred fighting 



1842.] VICTORIA. 579 

men, and twelve thousand camp followers, began to move out 
of the cantonments, and continued their march to the Pass of 
Klioord, losing men every day from hunger, cold, and the at- 
tacks of the tribes of the country througli which they passed. 

The disorganized force entered the pass, which for live miles 
is shut up by p'recipitous mountains, with a torrent rusliing 
down the centre, and here they were attacked by the uurelenting 
Ghilzyes, Avho shot down the fugitives without a chance of 
their being resisted or restrained. 

In this pass three thousand men are said to have fallen. On 
the 13th, a sentry on the ramparts of Jellalabad saw a solitary 
horseman struggling on toward the fort. lie was brought in, 
wounded and exhausted. The one man who was left to tell the 
frightful tale of the retreat from Cabul was Dr. Brj-don. 

On August 29, ISil, the Chinese war was brought to a suc- 
cessful termination. A lasting peace was agreed to. China 
was to pay Great Britain twenty-one millions of dollars as in- 
demnity for the war, payable in four years, and the ports of 
Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Kiug-po, and Shanghai were to 
be thrown open to the British. 

The ministerial arrangements of Sir Robert Peel were com- 
pleted ; the members of the House of Commons who had 
accepted office were re-elected. 

The Prime Minister asked for the confidence of the House 
whilst he considered the mode in which the great financial evil 
of the previous seven years could be removed. Being pressed 
upon the subject of the corn laws, he said he should have 
thought it reasonable that, on returning to power after a lapse 
of ten years, he should have not been called upon within a 
month to propose an alteration of the law in respect to the trade 
in corn, and on October Ttli Parliament was pi'orogued. 

On Tuesday, November 9th, the London Gazette exti-aordi- 
nary announced the birth that morning of a prince, and on the 
8th day of the next month the queen created the young prince 
Duke of Saxony, Cornwall, and Rothesay, Prince of Wales. On 
January 25, 1842, the baptism was performed at St. George's 
Chapel, Windsor, the King of Prussia, who had visited England 
for the special occasion, being one of the sponsors. 



580 VICTORIA. [1842. 

After four inontlis of anxious speculation on the part of the 
people as to the course that the ministry would pursue upon the 
two gi'eat questions of finance and trade, Parliament was opened 
bj the cjueen in person on February 3, 1842. She was accom- 
panied l)y the King of Prussia and a l>rilliant suite. In the 
speech from the throne the queen said : " The state of the 
finances and of the expenditure of the country is recommended 
to the immediate attention of Parliament ; " and so also was 
recommended " the state of the laws which aifect the importa- 
tion of corn and of other articles, the product of other conn- 
tries." There was no amendment to the address. It was 
announced by Sir Robert Peel that on the 9th he should move 
for a committee of the whole House for the purpose of con- 
sidering the laws which affected the import of foreign corn, and 
a bill was introduced in which a more liberal method of fixing 
the averages on the value of corn was arranged on the principle 
of a sliding scale of duties. After a debate of four days it 
passed the House of Commons on April Tth. 

In a tariff of twelve hundred articles. Sir Kobert proposed 
to make seven hundred and fifty reductions, and to meet the 
deficiency he proposed an income tax upon all incomes above 
£150 a year of seven])ence in the pound, all of which were car- 
ried through. Important alterations were also made in the 
Courts of Bankruptcy. 

While Parliament was sitting, two assaults were made upon 
the person of the queen ; one on May 30th by John Francis, 
twenty years of age, who fired a pistol at the queen as she was 
returning to Buckingham Palace. He was transported for life. 
On July 3d a deformed youth, named John Bean, presented a 
pistol at her, but being seized by a bystander, was prevented 
from filling it. 

On July 12th Sir Bobert Peel brought in a bill for the better 
protection of the queen's person. He proposed that any party 
not actually designing to take away the queen's life, but intend- 
ing to hurt or alarm her, should be subject to transportation for 
a term not exceeding seven years. 

On August 12th the queen prorogued Parliament. In this 
year Lord Ashburton proceeded to the United States as a special 



1843-1.] VICTORIA. 581 

commissioner, and concluded a treaty determin ing tlie boundary 
of Canada and the State of Maine. 

On February 2, IS-iS, Parliament Avas opened by commission. 
Tliere was no amendment proposed to tlie address. An anti- 
corn law league bad been formed, and Mr. Cobden was agitating 
a repeal of the corn laws. At the beginning of May, the agita- 
tion in Ireland for the repeal of the mnon bad become suffi- 
ciently formidable to make a declaration of tbe intentions of 
tlie government a matter of imperative necessity. 

In the House of Lords the Duke of Wellington, and in the 
House of Commons Sir Kobert Peel, expressed a determination 
to abide by tbe principle of the joint address of botli Houses of 
ISott — " to maintain unimpaired and undisturbed the legislative 
union between Great Britain and Ireland." 

Parliament was prorogued August 24tli, tbe queen in her 
speech noticed " the persevering efforts to stir up discontent and 
disaffection in Ireland," and expressed her earnest desire to ad- 
minister the government of that part of her kingdom in a spirit 
of strict justice and impartiality, and she also expressed her firm 
determination to maintain the legislative union. 

On October 1-ltli Mr. O'Connell and his associates were arrested 
on charges of conspiracy, sedition, and urdawf ul assembling. 

Parliament opened February 1, 1844. The queen, in her 
speech, alluded to the affaii's in Ireland, and said, "It is my 
earnest desire to co-operate with Parliament in the adoption of 
all such measures as might tend to improve the social condition 
of Irehind, and to develop the natural resources of that part of 
the United Kingdom." Lord John Russell in the Commons, 
and the Marquis of ISTormanby in the Lords, brought forward 
motions on the state of Ireland, both of which were thrown out 
by large majorities. 

Mr. O'Connell was tried before the Court of Queens Bench, 
in Dublin, and found guilty, and on May 30th he was sentenced 
to be imprisoned for twelve months, and to be fined ,£2,U(,»0, 

Sir Robert Peel was enabled to state to the House, that it 
was now admitted that there was a material improvement in 
some branches of manufacture, and with regard to the revenue, 
he was enabled to state, that the course of deficiency had been 



5S2 VICTORIA. [1S44-5. 

suspended, and that the revennes of the current year would be 
amply sufficient to meet the existing wants of the government ; 
and he declared, that he had not contemplated and did not con- 
template, an alteration in the present corn laws. 

On September 5, 184-1, O'Connell, on appeal to the House of 
Lords, had his sentence reversed, and he was discharged from 
confinement. 

AYhen Pai'l lament was opened by the queen, on February 1, 
1845, the improved condition of the country was a fertile sub- 
ject of her Majestj-'s congratulation, she said: " Increased ac- 
tivity pervades almost every branch of manufacture ; trade and 
conuuerce have extended at home and abroad." At this period 
the income tax was about to expire, but her Majesty thought it 
might be expedient to continue its operation for a further period ; 
the income tax had produced about £5,000,000, it was in many 
respects an objectionaljle tax, and if not Avholly al)olished, there 
was ample room to reduce the amount of the impost one-half. 

Tlie minister had a great policy to carry into effect. This par- 
tial experiment on free trade had prejiared him to make a bolder 
experiment, on the principle that the surest way to improve the 
condition of the great body of the people, was to remove those 
taxes upon larger branches of industry which not oidy interfered 
with their extension, but placed many of the comforts of life 
beyond the reach of the humbler classes ; "besides, by removing 
the taxes," he said, "you make a great decrease in the expenses 
of collection." He proposed to abolish all duties on exports, 
including the duty on coal and glass. 

The session of Parliament was prorogued l)y the queen, on 
August .9th, and on that day her Majesty and Prince Albert 
end)arked at Woolwich for Germany. 

The question which now principally occupied the attention of 
tlie public M^as that of the corn laws, and this was now approach- 
ing its solution through an unexpected dispensation of Provi- 
dence. The summer of 1845 was wet and cold ; it was plain 
that the harvest would be deficient, not only in England but 
throughout Europe. 

In addition to this calamity another appeared hitherto un- 
knowii : disease invaded the potato crop, and the root became 



1845.] VICTORIA. 583 

unfit to eat. A famine in Ireland, where the potato formed the 
staple food, was now imminent, and the alarm in Scotland- was 
great, and steadily increasing. 

The Anti- corn-law League redonhled its agitation and prom- 
ised to be o>i\e of the most formidable movements of modern 
times, and large snms of monej wei'e subscribed in all quarters 
in aid of its objects. Lord Morpeth joined it ; Lord John Ilussell 
addressed a letter to his constituents in the city, in which, amid 
taunts directed against Sir Robert Peel, he abandoned his scheme 
for a fixed duty on corn, and declared himself the advocate of 
free trade. Peel himself had come to the conclusion that a duty 
could no longer be upheld, and he had brought over the majority 
of the Cabinet to the same opinion ; but he felt that he and his 
colleagues were not the persons to cany a measure which they 
liad always opposed. On December 11th, the ministers re- 
signed, but Peel announced to the queen his intention to sup- 
port, in his private capacity, any minister she might appoint 
who should propose to do away with the duty upon corn. Lord 
John Pussell was now sent for by the queen ; lie failed in form- 
ing a Cabinet, and the previous one was restored. 

On Xovember 6, 1845, Sir Robert Peel proposed to the 
Cabinet to issue immediately an order in council, remitting the 
duty on grain in bond to one shilling per quarter ; opening the 
ports to the temporaiy admission of all grain to a smaller rate 
of duty. lie further proposed to call Parliament together on 
l!*rovember 27th, to ask indemnity, and to declare au intention 
of submitting immediately after the recess, a modification of 
the existing corn laws. Three only of his colleagues ga\"e their 
support to the measure. Differences thus occurring in the 
Cabinet, Sir Robert Peel repaired to Osborne, on December 5tli, 
and humbly solicited the queen to release him from duties which 
he could no longer discharge with advantage to her Majesty's 
service. 

The queen then informed Sir Robert it was her intention to 
propose to Lord John Russell the formation of a government. 
Lord John Russell was at Edinburgh when he received the 
queen's summons, lie went to her Majesty with the conviction 
that he could not accept the great trust now offered to him ; he 



5 SI VICTORIA. [iS45-G. 

felt that, Ills party being in a manifest minority in the Com- 
mons, he conld not properlj^ nndertake the formation of a gov- 
ernment. But the offer of Sir Robert Peel to give his assist- 
ance in a pi'ivate capacity toward the settlement of the corn 
law qnestion determined Lord John liussell to depart from this 
resolution, and on December ISth he informed her Majesty 
that he was ready to nndertake the formation of a government. 
In consequence, Sir Robert Peel v/as invited by her Majesty to 
a parting interview on his relinquishment of office. On enter- 
ing the room at Windsor, on December 20th, her Majesty said 
to him very graciously, " So far from taking leave of you, Sir 
Pobei-t, I must require of you to withdraw your resignation and 
to remain in my service." Lord John Russell had written to 
the queen on the morning of that day that he had found it im- 
possible to form an administration. 

On January 26, 1846, when the queen opened Parliament in 
person, the royal speech necessarily alluded to the failure of the 
potato crop in Ireland, and to the means tliat had been adopted 
for alleviating the sufferings caused by this calamity. Her 
Majesty, it was declared, had had great satisfaction in giving 
her consent to the measures for the repeal of prohibitory and 
the relaxation of protective duties. The prosperous state of 
the revenue, the increased demand for labor, and the general 
improvement which had taken place in the internal condition of 
the country, were strong testimonies in favor of the com'se that 
had been pursued. 

In the closiug part of Sir Robert's speech on the dcl)ate of 
the address, he said : "" I will not, sir, undertake to direct the 
course of the vessel of state by the observations taken in 1842. 
I will reserve to myself the marking out of that course ;- and I 
must, for the public interest, claim for myself the unfettered 
power of judging of those measures which I conceive will be 
better for the country to propose. Sir, I do not wish to be 
minister of England, but while I have the high honor of hold- 
ing that office, I am determined to hold it by no servile tenure. 
I vrill only hold that office upon the condition of being un- 
shackled by any other obligations than those of consulting the 
public interests and of providing for the public safety." 



ism] VICTORIA. 585 

On January 2Ttli the premier developed his plan of finan- 
cial and conimereial policy, stating the reduction of duties on 
almost every article on the list of the existing tai'iff. The de- 
bate continuing to February 16th, on that night Sir Robert 
Peel closed his speech M'ith the following words : " Tliis night 
is to decide l)etween the policy of continued relaxation of re- 
striction or the return to restraint and prohibition. This night 
you will select the inotto which is to indicate the commercial 
policy of England. Shall it be ' advance ' or ' recede 'i ' Which 
is the fitter motto for this great empire ? Survey our position ; 
consider the advantages which God and nature has given us, and 
the clestiu}^ for wdiich we are intended. We stand on the con- 
fines of Western Europe, the chief connecting link between the 
Old World and the Xew. The discoveries of science and im- 
provement of navigation have brought us within ten days of St. 
Petersburg, and will soon bring ns within ten days of Xew 
York. We have an extent of coast greater in proportion to our 
population and the area of our land than any other great nation, 
securing to ns maritime strength and superiority. Iron and 
coal, the sinews of manufacture, give ns advantages over every 
rival in the great competition of industrj". In ingenuity, in 
skill, in energy, we are inferior to none. Our national charac- 
ter, the free institutions under which we live, the liberty of 
thought and action, an unshackled press spreading the knowl- 
edge of every discovery and of every advance of science, com- 
bine with our natural and physical advantages to place us at the 
head of those nations which profit by the free interchange of 
their products. And is this the country to shrink from compe- 
tition ? Is this the country Mdiich can only fiourish in the sickly 
artificial atmosphere of prohibition ? Is this the country to stand 
shivering on the bank. of exposure to the healthful breezes of 
competition ? " 

The debate continued on both the customs and corn bills 
until June 25th, after many amendments and motions, and on 
the 26tli received the royal assent. By the corn importation 
act that scale of duties as proposed by the govermnent on Jan- 
uary 2Tth was adopted, viz. : when wheat was under forty-eight 
shillings per quarter the duty was to be ten shillings, at every 



5S6 VICTORIA, [184G-7. 

rise of one shilling per quarter the duty was to be one shilling- 
lower, nntil wheat should reach lif ty-four shillings and the duty 
at four shillings, after which the duty should not further 
change. This arrangement was to continue until February 1, 
1849, after which day a duty upon grain of one shilling per 
quarter and fourpence half -penny upon flour and meal was to 
be levied for purely statistical purposes. 

A debate commenced in the Commons on a bill for the pro- 
tection of life in Ireland. On a division, the government were 
beaten by a majority of seventy- three votes against them, and 
on June 29tli the ministry of Sir Robert Peel i-esigned, on 
which the House adjourned until July 3d. 

On July 6, IS-tG, Lord John Russell, as First Lord of the 
Treasury, and the other members of the administration, were 
sworn into office. 

The settlement of the Oregon question was announced to 
the House of Lords on July 29th, by the Earl of Aberdeen. 
This settlement relieved the nation from much anxiety. 

Ou February 10th was fought the great battle of Sobraon, in 
which the Sikhs lost thirteen thousand men and sixty-seven 
guns. The British loss was about two thousand killed and 
wounded. On the 20th, Lahore, the capital, was occupied, 
Dliuleep Singh, the young Maharajah, was reinstated in the city, 
and a treaty was signed by which he was continued in the rela- 
tion of a sovereign friendly with the British government. 

In July, 181:7, Parliament was dissolved. In September and 
October there had been great commercial distress. Mercantile 
houses in London of the highest eminence suspended their pay- 
ments. Oorresponding disasters occurred in Manchester, Liver- 
pool, and (xlasgow. All the usual accommodation in the money 
market was at an end, and by the end of October the depression 
had become a great panic. A deputation of bankers and merchants 
waited on the Prime Minister to confer on the necessity of some 
remedial measures, wlio addressed a letter to the Governor of the 
Baidv of England, recommending that institution to enlarge the 
amount of their discounts and advances upon approved security, 
charffina: a high rate of interest. The letter added, '' if this course 
should lead to any infringement of law, her Majesty's govern- 



1847-0.] VICTORIA. 587 

ment will be prepcared to propose to Parliament a Bill of Iii- 
demnitj," The recommendation was acceded to, and there 
was a partial restoration of confidence. 

The new parliament was opened I^ovember 18, 1S4T. Mr. 
Shaw-Lefevre was re-elected Speaker. 

On the 23d the royal speech was delivered by commission. 
It announced that although the course recommended by minis- 
ters to the Bank of England might have led to an infringement 
of the law, the law had not been infringed, and that now the 
alarm had subsided, and Parliament was adjourned until Feb- 
ruary 3, 1848. After the meeting of the House on February 
21:th, intelligence was received of the abdication and flight of 
King Louis Philippe and of the proclamation of the republic in 
France. 

Chartism had slumbered in England since 1839. The princi- 
ples of socialism, which had been diligently propagated in 
France for the past ten years, gradually made their way in a 
small extent to England, and riots took place in all the princi- 
pal cities, and they were not put down until severe measures 
were resorted to. 

Parliament was opened February 1, 1819, by the queen. She 
said : "■ I observe with satisfaction that this portion of the 
United Kingdom has remained tranquil amidst the convulsions 
which have disturbed so many parts of Europe. It is with 
pride and thankfulness that I advert to the loyal spirit of my 
people, and that attachment to our institutions which has ani- 
mated them during a period of commercial difficulty, deficient 
production of food, and political revolution. I look to the pro- 
tection of Almighty God for favor in our continued progress, 
and I trust you will assist me in uj^holding the fabric of the 
Constitution, founded as it is upon the principles of freedom 
and justice." 

The session of Parliament of 1850 was distinguished by the 
establishment of a policy of self-government for the colonies 
which had already been tried in Canada. On June 29th of this 
year Sir Robert Peel was killed by a fall from his horse near 
the Green Park, London. The death of no English statesman 
had ever produced a greater feeling of grief throughout the 



5S8 VICTORIA. [1850-1. 

land than was evinced at the irreparable loss which the nation 
had sustained. 

The country was excited this year by a bull published by 
Pope Pius IX. establishing a Roman Catholic hierarchy in 
Eno'land. The followino; passaore in reference to it occurred in 
the queen's speech : 

" The recent assumption of certain ecclesiastical titles con- 
ferred by a foreign power has excited strong feelings in this 
country, and large bodies of my subjects have presented ad- 
dresses to me expressing attachment to the throne, and praying 
that such assumption" should be resisted. I have assured them 
of my resolution to maintain the rights of my crown and the 
independence of the nation against all encroachment, from what- 
ever quarter it may proceed, and it will be for you .to consider 
the measures which will bo laid before you on the subject." 
On February Tth the Papal xVggression Bill was introduced by 
the Premier, which, after a long discus^on, passed both Houses 
by a very large majority. 

On May 1, 1851, the first Great Exhibition Avas opened by 
the queen and Prince Albert in Hyde Park, and became a 
popular and successful undertaking. 

On December 2, 1851, occurred the eouj) (Vetat which placed 
Louis Xapoleon on the throne of France, and ultimately caused 
the fall of Lord John Russell's ministry. It appeai'ed that 
Lord Palmerston, the Foreign Secretary, was in the hal)it of 
acting on his own responsibility in his department, and that this 
gave great dissatisfaction to the queen. The English andjassador 
in Paris had been instructed to abstain from all action in the in- 
ternal affairs of that country ; but Loi'd Palmerston was alleged 
to have held a conversation with the French ambassador inconsis- 
tent with those instructions, giving the moral approbation of 
England, without the consent of the crown, to the acts of 
iS^apoleon. lie was succeeded in the Foreign Office by the 
Earl Granville. Soon after the ministry resigned, February, 
1852. . 

The queen sent for Lord Derby, who succeeded in forming a 
cabinet, and a considerable number of useful local measures 
were passed during the remainder of the session, which was 



1S52-4.] VICTORIA. 5S9 

prorogued by the queen in person on July 1, 1852. The fol- 
lowing day Parliament was dissolved. 

The new parliament assembled November 4, 1852. Mr. 
Charles Shaw-Lefevre M'as re-elected Speaker without opposi- 
tion. The royal speech was delivered by the queen in person 
on the 11th, when her Majesty announced the existence of the 
most amicable relations with all foreign powers. 

The session was occupied principally with commercial mat- 
ters and tinancial questions. AVith regard to the latter, the ma- 
jority of the House were at issue with the government, and the 
ministry were defeated by nineteen votes, on which they resigned. 

A coalition between the Whigs and Peelites was next tried, 
with the Earl of Aberdeen as Prime Minister, after which the 
House adjourned until February 10, 1853. 

On September 14, 1852, died at Walmer Castle, Arthur, 
Duke of Wellington, in the eighty -fourth year of his age. No 
Englishman ever received so many honors from Ins country. 
He was one of the greatest and most successful warriors of his 
time, and his civil career was scarcely less splendid. 

Trouble was brewing between Russia and Turkey concerning 
the protectorate of the Holy Places, and on October 28, 1853, 
hostilities commenced between the troops of those nations. This 
was the beii'innino; of what afterward I'esnlted in the Crimean 
war, between England, France, Italy, and Turkey, on the one 
side, and Russia on the other, and which continued until the 
fall of Sebastopol. 

On February 13, 1854, Count Nesselrode notified the ambas- 
sadors of France and England at St. Petersburg that Baron 
Brunnow and M. de Kisseleff had quitted London and Paris, 
and that diplomatic relations Avere suspended between Russia 
and the Western Powers. The two ministers shortly afterward 
took their departure. 

Before declaring w^ar the Western Powers had recourse to 
one more step — a step that can hardly be termed peaceful, but 
one which placed them in the right, and showed Russia in the 
wrong. They determined to summon Russia to evacuate the 
Principalities within a given time, and they spared no pains to 
induce Austria and Prussia to support the summons. 



590 VICTORIA. [1854. 

The .summons Avas intrusted to a .special messenger, and de- 
clared that, unless Kussia ordered Prince Gortschakoff to retire 
from the principalities at once, and to complete the evacuation by 
April 30th, England and France would consider that equivalent 
to a declaration of war. The bearer of this missive was to wait 
at St. Petersburg six days for an answei', and no longer. Con- 
sul Michele was then in charge of the English interests, and on 
the last day allowed for the answei-, was requested by Count 
Kesselrode, the Russian Foreign Minister, to call upon him. 
" On entering the room," writes the Consul, " his excellency's 
greeting was of the most friendly description. lie said, ' I 
have taken his Majesty's counnands with reference to Lord 
Clarendon's note, and the emperor does not think it becoming 
to riitike any I'ejdy to it y ' " and after the consul repeated the re- 
ply, in case of any mistake, he again asked the Count if that 
was all he had to say. lie replied, " Yes, that is the answer 
I wish you to convey to your government.'' And so after this 
singular scene at the Russian Foreign Office, exit peace and 
enter war. In the meantime, preparations for war were going 
on in England. A fleet of forty -four ships of war, under Sir 
Charles K^apier, was despatched to the Baltic. Three bat- 
talions of guards and several regiments of the line had em- 
barked for Malta, and the Mediterranean fleet was largely aug- 
mented. 

On March 27, 1S54, Captain Blackwood, the queen's messen- 
ger, returned with the Czar's negative defiance. The queen 
sent a message to Parliament, stating that all the endeavors of 
her government to preserve peace had failed, and that she 
relied on the zeal of her Parliament to support her in protect- 
ing the dominions of the Sultan from Russian encroachments. 

On the following daj' war was declared, and on March 31st 
both Houses ao-reed to an address, reeordinii; the ao'irressions of 
Russia, and expre.ssing a firm determination to resist them. 
On April 3d nearly all the memljers of both Houses waited on 
her Majesty at Buckingham Palace, with their answer to her 
message. 

On April lltli the Czar published his declaration of war, in 
M'hich he declared that Russia took up arms for no worldly in- 



1&54.] VICTORIA. 591 

terests, but for the Christian faith. On the 21st, Odessa was 
bombarded by the allied fleet, as a punishment for the forts of 
that city having tired on a boat of H. M. S. Furious, while re- 
turning under a flag of truce with the English consul at tha<; 
port on board, and great damage was done to the forts and ship- 
ping. 

Tlie first battle in the Crimea was fought by the French and 
English forces against the Kussians, September 20, 1854, at the 
Alma, when the latter were defeated, acknowledging a loss of 
five thousand seven hundred men. 

The bombardment of Sebastopol commenced on October 17th 
following, both by land and sea, l)ut the ships had to retire 
"without accomplishing any good result. 

Ou October 25th, General Liprandi, commanding the Tlussian 
12th Division, attacked the allies at Balaclava, and was signally 
defeated. Tliere occurred the celebrated charge of the Light 
Brigade of cavalry, under Lord Cardigan. Out of six lumdi-ed 
and seventy who rode into tlie valley, tliere were left only one 
hundred and ninety-five mounted men ; the charge only lasted 
twenty minutes, and virtually ended the battle. 

Prince Menschikoff, who connnanded in chief the Russian 
army in the Crimea, was now largely reinforced, and deter- 
mined to attack the allied armies at Inkerman. On IS^ovember 
4th the battle of that name was fought, and the Russians Avere 
again defeated, with great loss on both sides. 

General Frost and Genei-al Snow now came to the Czar's as- 
sistance, and did more harm to the allies than his best generals. 
On the night of Xovember 14, 1S54, a fearful storm passed over 
the whole land, a hurricane swept the plateau Avhere the allies were 
encamped ; and in a moment every tent was down ; the inmates 
crept out, some half clothed, others nearly naked ; the air was 
filled with chairs, tables, blankets, hats, coats, and, in fact, every- 
thing portable ; heavy ambulance wagons were overturned, horses 
rolled over and over ; immense trusses of hay were lifted from 
the ground. The men, in this condition, stood or lay in front 
of their levelled tents, without shelter, without covering ; no 
fires could be lighted, no food cooked ; all around was common 
desolation. 



592 VICTORIA. [1855. 

The liospitnl tents had shared the fate of tlie others ; the sick 
and wounded hiy exposed, and many died in consequence. 

Generals, officers, soldiers — sick and wounded, hale and well 
— were in equal plight. 

During the day the weather became colder, the rain turned 
into sleet and snow ; still the brave soldiers bore up with a sober 
resolution, and without complaining. At Balaclava the storm 
was e(]ua]ly severe, and the loss of shipping great ; twenty large 
transports, laden with provisions and clothing, were totally de- 
stroyed, with their entire stores. 

For the next two months it was the duty of the British army 
to endure and wait until the country had time to put forth its 
strength, and relieve it from its dithculties. 

Parliament met on January 23, 1855. Mr. Hoebuck proposed 
an inquiry, by a committee of the House, into the condition of 
the army in the Crimea, and the conduct of the departments 
whose duty it was to minister to the wants of that ai'my. 

Mr. Roebuck's motion was carried by a majority of one hun- 
dred and hfty-seven, and the ministry resigned. 

The queen sent for the Earl of Derby ; he accepted her Ma- 
jesty's commission to form a Cabinet, but M^as not successful. 
Her Majesty then called in Lord Palmerston, although only a 
few days had elapsed since he and others fell under a vote of 
censure. 

Yet he was now able to construct a new ministry out of old 
materials : himself as Premier, Lord Pannmre as Secretary of 
"War, and Earl Granville President of the Council. Lord Can- 
ning obtained a seat in the Cabinet. 

On June 28, 1855, Field-Marshal Lord Paglan, Commander- 
in-chief of the British ami}' in the Crimea, died before Sebas- 
topol, after an illness of only five days, in the 07th year of his 
age. He was succeeded by General Sir James Simpson. 

The Pussians under Prince Gortschakoff were again defeated 
by the allied armies at Tchernaya, on August 10, 1855, when, 
it is said, they lost fifteen thousand men. The siege of Sel)as- 
topol had been steadily progressing all summer, and this battle 
did not interrupt the progress of the siege. The Malakoif was 
looked iq^on as the key of that stronghold, and the main efforts 



1855-6.] VICTORIA. 593 

o£ tlie allies were directed toward it. Tlie Itiissiaiis within its 
lines were now suffering severely, not onl}^ from fatigue, but 
from a lack of water, and sometimes of food. 

The sixth and last bombardment of Sebastopol began Sep- 
tember C, 1855. Eight hundred f)ieces of heav}^ ordnance 
opened on the place, and the Malakoff was soon silenced, but 
the bombardment continued on the Redan and other points ; in 
the evening some ships still iloating in the harbor were noticed 
to be on tire, and great movement appeared to and fro on a raft 
bridge across the harbor. The cannonade was resumed the fol- 
lowing dav, and the next. On the nio;ht of the 7th tires were 
noticed in several parts of the citj ; about two o'clock a maga- 
zine blew up. The night wore away and the morning of the 
8th dawned, and with it a more tremendous bombardment than 
ever. x\.t noon the place was to be stoi-med, and after desperate 
fighting the principal works were carried. About four o'clock, 
Gortschakoff, seeing the state of affairs, knew that all was lost, 
and giving orders to his generals to defend to the last the 
approach to the heart of the city, decided upon a retreat. 
AVith the main body of his army, he crossed over to the north 
side in regular order; during the night the reserves followed. 

The Highland division had been moved into the advanced 
trenches, to be ready for an assault at daybreak. Struck by 
the silence of the Redan, one or two ofncers crept up and looked 
in. The enemy had fled, but fired the town before leaving. 
Soon batteries began to explode at irregular intervals, and later 
the great forts of Quarantin and Alexander blew up. Sehas- 
to]?ol had fallen. 

The allies were now enabled to make ample preparations for 
winter. The weather was fine ; their situation was widely dif- 
ferent from that of the previous winter. They were also tri- 
umphant, and in a secure position ; they had the resources of 
Sebastopol in wood and stone at least to defend themselves 
against the cold and rain, and the British ami}- thrived under 
good treatment. 

Parliament was opened by Queen Victoria in person on Jan- 
uary 31, 1856. In the speech from the throne, her Majesty 
declared : '* While determined to prosecute the war with vigor, 
38 



594 VICTORIA. [1S56-7. 

I deem it my duty not to decline any reasonable overture prom- 
ising peace. Accordingly, when tlie Emperor of Austria lately 
offered to myself and to m}- august ally, the Emperor of the 
French, to employ his good offices with the Emperor of Russia 
with a view to endeavor to bring about an amicable adjustment 
of the matters at issue between the contending powers, I con- 
sented, in concert with my allies, to accept the offer thus made ; 
and I have the satisfaction to inform you that certain conditions 
have been agreed upon, which, I hope, may prove the founda- 
tion of a general treaty of peace. Negotiations for such a 
treaty will shortly be opened at Paris, In conducting these 
negotiations I shall be careful not to lose sight of the objects 
for which the war was undertaken, and I shall deem it right in 
no degree to relax my naval and military preparations until a 
satisfactory peace shall be concluded." 

The congi-ess met at Paris on February 25th, and after some 
debate it was determined that an armistice should be concluded 
between the belligerents, to terminate on March 31st, unless 
renewed. It was also resolved that the plenipotentiaries should 
not divulge what occurred. On March 30, 1856, the treaty of 
peace was concluded and signed at Paris, to the great joy of all 
nations concerned in the war, and May 4th was set apart in 
London as a day of thanksgiving for the peace. 

The speech from the throne, on the opening of the session of 
Parliament of 1857, stated that England and France despatched 
earnest remonstrances to the King of Xaples in order to induce 
his government to mitigate the system of oppression under 
which his subjects groaned, and to adopt a course of policy cal- 
culated to avert the dangers which might distm-b the peace 
which had recently been restored to Europe. These friendly 
remonstrances Avere I'ejected by the monarch in terms which 
left no alternative with the Western Powers but to withdraw 
their ministers from that court. This fact led to attacks from 
the conservatives upon the administration for their interference 
M'ith the domestic affairs of another country. 

On March 3, 1857, Lord Palmerston's government was de- 
feated on a motion condemning the conduct of the war in 
China, conducted by Sir John Powring, Pritish Consul at Can- 



1857-8.] VICTORIA. 595 

ton, and on the 5tli Lord Granville, in the Upper House, and 
Lord Pahnerston in the Lower, announced that her Majesty's 
ministers had advised her to dissolve Parliament. The remain- 
ing business having been rapidly disposed of. Parliament was 
prorogued March 21st, and the next day dissolved by procla- 
mation. 

The new parliament met April 30th. The result of the gen- 
eral election showed how well grounded was the confidence with 
which Lord Pahnerston appealed to the country, and some of 
his most violent opponents lost their election. The late 
Speaker, Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, after his long services, had been 
raised to the peerage as Lord Eversley, with an annuity of 
£4,000 a year, and Mr. John Evelyn Denison was unanimously 
elected Speaker in his place. The royalspeech was delivered 
May 7th. The queen expressed her heartfelt gratification at 
witnessing the continued well-being and contentment of her 
people, and the pi-ogressive development of productive industry 
throughout her dominions. 

The first matter of interest that came before the House was 
a message from the queen, announcing that a marriage had 
been negotiated between Prince Frederick "William of Prussia 
and the Princess Royal, and a marriage portion of £40,000 and 
an annuity of £8,000 a year was voted her. 

This session was distinguished by the passing of two meas- 
ures of great social importance — the transfer of testamentary 
and matrimonial cases from the jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical 
Courts, and tlie establishment of a new probate court and a new 
divorce court. 

An attempt had been made on the life of the Emperor Louis 
Xapoleon, January 14, 1858 — the celebrated Orsini plot. A 
spirited correspondence was carried on between the governments 
of France and England about the right of asylum. Amicable 
relations were endangered, and great indignation was felt in 
England. The ministry brought in a bill to amend the law 
relating to the crimes of conspiracy and intent to murder, 
either within or without her Majesty's dominions, and whether ' 
the person killed or imperilled were a sul:)ject of her Majesty 
or not. It met with violent opposition ; the government had a 



596 VICTORIA. [185S-9. 

majority of nineteen against them, and on February 22d Lord 
Palmerston announced that the ministers had tendered their 
resignation toiler Majesty, which had been accepted, and lie 
moved an adjournment of the House. 

Lord Derby was sent for by the queen, and succeeded in 
forming an administration composed of Prime Minister, Earl 
Derby ; Lord Chancellor, Lord Chelmsford ; President of the 
Council, Marquis of Salisbury ; Lord Priv'y Seal, Earl of Ilard- 
wicke ; Walpole, Malmesbury, and Stanley, Secretaries for the 
Home, Foreign, and Colonial Departments ; Mr. Disraeli 
Chancellor of 'the Exchequer. 

The Sepoy mutiny broke out at Meerut, f orty-fiv^e miles north 
of Delhi, on Ma}' 17, 1S5T, and soon spread over a large por- 
tion of India, causing deplorable destruction of life to all the 
Christian population within its range. England despatched over 
thirty tlujusand troops, with some of her best generals, and after 
a terrible struggle, at last conquered. The nuitiny was not al- 
together put down until January, 1859. 

Parliament, at this period, eifected a great reform in the gov- 
ernment of India. An act was passed in 1S5S which abolished 
tlie rule of the East India Company, and transferred the gov- 
ernment of India to the crown. Thenceforth, instead of a 
Board of Directors, there was to be a Council of India and a 
Secretary of Stale, a responsible minister. 

In the queen's speech, on the opening of the session of 1859, 
the principal mention was : " Your attention will be called to 
the state of the laws which regulate the representation of the 
people in Parliament, and I cannot doubt but that you will give 
to this great sul)ject a degree of calm and impartial considera- 
tion proportionate to the magnitude of the interests involved in 
the result of your deliberations." 

In pursuance of this announcement, Mr. Disraeli introduced 
a reform bill on February 28, 1859. 

Lord John Pussell proposed, as an amendment, " That tliis 
House is of the opinion that it is neither just nor politic to in- 
terfere in the manner proposed by this 1)111, without the free- 
hold franchise as hitherto exercised in counties in England and 
AVales, and that no readjustment of the franchise will satisfy 



1859.] VICTORIA. 597 

tliis House or the eonntiy wliieli does not provide for a greater 
extension of the suffrage in cities and boroughs than is coutein- 
plated in the present measure." 

After a long and practical debate, the House proceeded to a 
division, April 1st, and it was decisive against the government 
bv a majority of 39. 

]^ext day Lord Derby had an audience with the queen. In 
the House of Lords, the same evening, he stated that the ma- 
jority against him left him only the alternatives either to resign 
or dissolve Parliament. 

iVccording to his lordship's views, the chief mischief-maker, 
was Lord John Russell, who from the restless energy of his dis- 
position, had the peculiar fortune to overthrow many govern- 
ments, not only of his opponents, but also of his friends; the 
consequence of which conduct was, that hardly a year now 
passed without a ministerial crisis ; and if the system was per- 
severed in, it would put an end to all government ; for it inflicted 
injury at home, and damaged the influence abroad. One of the 
questions bequeathed to him by the late government, was par- 
liamentary reform. He had, in consequence, introduced a bill 
to meet tluat question. Their lordships knew how it had been 
received. 

After some discussion on the dissolution, the House hastened 
to wind up the session by disposing of the necessary business, 
and on April 9th Parliament was prorogued by connnission, and 
shortly after dissolved. 

The result of the general election was adverse to the govern- 
ment. The late Speaker, Mr. Denison, was re-elected unani- 
mously ; the session was opened Jmie 7, 1859 ; the speech from 
the throne contained nothing remarkable, except a suggestion 
that the subject of parliamentary reform should be postponed 
until next session. 

A scheme for the liberation of Italy from the Austrian do- 
minion in the north, and Austrian influence throughout the 
peninsula had been arranged between Xapoleon III. and Ccnmt 
Cavour, and was favorably considered in England, but Lord 
Derby showed a M'ant of sympathy. 

The debates in both Houses on the address to the (pieen's 



59S VICTORIA. [1S59-61. 

speech were unusnallv animated. The address in the Lords 
was agreed to. In tlie Commons an amendment was moved by 
the Marquis of Ilartington, " That the nation sympathized with 
the cause of freedom in Italy, and had a decided conviction tliat 
a Conservative government was not a fitting medium througii 
which that sympathy might be conveyed. After three nights' 
debate, the amendment was carried by a majority of thn-teen 
votes. In consequence of tliis adverse division Lord Derby 
announced in the House of Lords, June 19th, the resignation of 
the ministry. The same evening Mr. Disraeli made a similar 
announcement in the House of Commons. 

Lord Palmerston was then called upon by her Majesty to 
foi-m an administration, the queen having previously applied to 
Earl Granville. 

The new ministers were all re-elected to their seats in the 
Commons, rendered vacant by their appointment to office. The 
following formed the new Cabinet: Lord Palmerston, Prime 
Minister; Lord Campbell, Chancellor; Lord Granville, Presi- 
dent of the Council ; the Duke of Argyll, Lord Privy Seal ; Sir 
Geo. Lewis, Home Secretary ; Lord John Russell, Foreign 
Secretary!' ; the Duke of Newcastle, Colonial Secretary ; Mr. 
Sidney Herbert, Secretary of War ; Sir Charles Wood, Secre- 
tary of India ; Mr. Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

The session of 1S60 opened January 2Ith, her Majesty de- 
livering the royal speech in person. 

The Italian (piestion became the prominent topic of discussion, 
especially the part France had played after the war in demand- 
ing the cession of Savoy and Is ice, but the discussion led to no 
practical result. 

Great interest was felt at the opening of this session about 
the forthcoming financial statement of Mr. Gladstone, and the 
treaty of commerce with France. Both liis budget and treaty 
passed by large majorities. The affairs of India also occupied 
considerable attention. On August 2Sth Parliament was pro- 
rogued. 

The session of ISOl was opened by the queen in person, who 
informed Parliament, among other matters, that the operations 
of the allied forces in China had met with complete success ; 



lSGl-3.] VICTORIA. 599 

that, having become masters of Pekin, an honorable settlement 
had been obtained ; and that the two plenipotentiaries had 
acted with most f i-iendlj concert ; and her heartfelt wish was 
that the differences which had arisen between the northern and 
sontliern portion of the American Union might be susceptible 
of a satisfactory adjustment — that the interest which she took 
in the well-being of the people of the United States could not 
but be increased by the kind and cordial reception given by 
them to the Prince of Wales, during his recent visit to the con- 
tinent of America. 

The prince arrived in Canada July 2i, ISGO, and remained 
on the continent until October 20tli. 

The queen's mother, the Duchess of Kent, died March IG, 
1861, aged seyenty-iive years. 

The country having been in the enjoyment of great pros- 
perity, and the people contented, the session of Parliament 
passed over with unusual tranquillity, and many useful measures 
were passed. Parliament was prorogued by commission, August 
6th. 

On August 21st the queen visited Ireland accompanied by 
Prince Albert. 

On November 1, 1801, the queen, as sovereign of the most 
exalted Order of the Star of India, held her first in\'esture of 
that order in great state, and seven knights were installed. 

On December 11th of this year died Prince Albert, to the 
inexpressible grief of her Majesty and all the royal family. 
There were manifestations of sorrow throughout the nation, 
such as had never been witnessed since the death of the Prin- 
cess Charlotte. 

For several days before the funeral nearly the whole popula- 
tion of the kingdom appeared in mourning, the funeral took 
place on December 23d. 

On the opening of the session of Parliament, in 1802, by 
commission, the queen referred to "the calamitous, untimely, 
and irreparable loss " of lier beloved consort, who had been her 
comfort and support. It had been, however, soothing to her, 
while suffering most acutely under this awful dispensation of 
Providence, to receive from all classes of her subjects, the most 



coo VICTORIA. [1863-3. 

cordial assurances of their synipatliy witli her sori'ow, as well of 
their appi-eciation of the noble character of him, the greathess 
of whose loss to her Majesty and to the nation is so justly, and 
so nniversally felt and lamented. 

Some beautiful and tonching things were said about the prince 
in both houses of Parliament. 

The progress of the civil war in America excited a restless 
feeling in England, which naturally found its expression within 
the walls of Parliament, where merchants, impatient at the cot- 
ton famine, found spokestneu to talk against the inefhciency of 
the blockade of the Southern ports, and to urge the government 
to interfere. Mr. Lindsay, the chief representative of that por- 
tion of the mercantile community of England which desired 
the recognition of the Confederacy as an independent State, 
proposed a resolution, in July, suggesting the pi"0]>riet3' of offer- 
ing mediation, with a view of terminating the hostilities between 
the contending parties. The matter was warmly* discussed, but 
in the end the couiicils of prudence and caution prevailed, and 
the resolntion was rejected. 

Ou the. occasion of the marriage of the Princess Alice to 
Prince Louis of Hesse, a dowry of £30,000 and an income of 
£6,000 a year was voted. 

The remaining proceedings of Parliament were of minor im- 
portance, and both Houses were prorogued August Ttli. 

The second great Liternatioual Exhibition was opened, in 
London, May 1, 1862, by Lords Connnissioners. Owing to the 
death of Prince Albert none of the royal family Nvere present. 

The 3'ear 1863, so far as England "was concerned, was nn- 
marked by political agitation, and unclouded by the anxieties 
of war ; but there was great distress in Lancashire, owing to the 
stop])age of many looms, until now dependent on American cot- 
ton. 

The world was hunted through by the agents of the great 
cotton industry, in order to find new sources of supply, and 
£750,000 was raised to assist the distressed workmen. 

Parliament met as usual, early in February, 1863, and was 
opened by commission. 

The first clause of the royal speech informed both Houses 



1863-4.] VICTORIA. 601 

tliat lier Majesty liad declared lier consent to a marriage between 
liis Royal Highness tlie Prince of Wales and her Iloyal High- 
ness the Princess Alexandra, danghter of Prince Christian of 
Denmark. The marriage took place at AVindsor, March 10th. 

The House of Connnons, on motion of Lord Palmerston, 
granted to the Prince and Pi-incess of Wales, in addition to the 
rev^enues of the Duchy of Cornwall, amounting to aljont £00,000 
per annum, a revenue of £50,000 a year from the Consolidated 
Fund, of which sum £10,000 a year was separately settled on 
the princess, and a jointure of £30,000 a year, should the prin- 
cess survive her husband. 

The estimates for the year and expenditure presented l>y Mr. 
Gladstone, showed a large probable surplus, which was con- 
sidered a favorable state of the country. 

Various subjects of pressing interest, European, American, 
and colonial, were debated during the course of the session, but 
with little effect on the policy either of tlie home or foreign 
governments. 

Parliament was opened by commission, February 1, ISGl. In 
the royal speech her Majesty expressed her confidence that Par- 
liament would sympathize with her in her gratitude to the 
Almighty, on account of the Pi-incess of Wales having given 
bii'tli to a son. The speech mentioned the recent invasion of 
Schleswig-IIolstein by the forces of Prussia and Austria, and 
the subject was soon taken up and keenly debated in Parlia- 
ment. 

Tlie financial statement of Mr. Gladstone was again the chief 
point of attraction, and gave great satisfaction. 

On tlie question of parliamentary reform, he declared that 
the proper way of dealing with the question was not to wait till 
a vehement agitation had been commenced in its favor, but 
boldly anticipate, and by conceding so much of its demands as 
was just and reasonable, deprive it of its dangerous quality. 

Parliament was prorogued on July 29th, and the records of 
the remaining five months of the year contain little or nothing 
of public interest: 

The gradual abatement of the distress in Lancashire diffused 
a general feeling of relief and satisfaction. 



602 VICTORIA. [186 '-5. 

Little wars raged at the Cape Coast, in Africa, and in Xew 
Zealand, while both in China and Japan hostilities were carried 
on in which England was more or less concerned. 

The Governor of Cape Coast Castle having refused to give 
up to the King of Ashantee two of his slaves who had taken 
refuge within British territory, the king made an incursion into 
the lands of the Fantees, a friendly tribe, iidiabiting the portion 
of the coast which adjoins the British settlement. Thereupon 
Governor Pim ordered a force to invade Ashantee, which, 
owing to the pestilential nature of the climate, produced no good 
effect. 

When the Parliament met for the session of February, 1865, 
the (pieen's speech was read by the Lord Chancellor, who said : 
" Her Majesty commands ns to inform you that the general 
state of the country is satisfactory, and that the revenue realizes 
its estimated amount.'" 

The opening of the year was as calm, both at home and 
abroad, as could possibly be, save for the echoes of storm which 
still continued to be heard in America. The war still raged 
there, but it was evident that the collapse was at hand. The 
war between Denmark and the two great German powers had 
ended in a treaty of peace. India M'as prosperous, save for the 
traces of the great hurricane which had swept over Calcutta a 
few months before. In one only of the colonies, iSTew Zealand, 
was anything visibly disturbed, and there the Maori Avar seemed 
to have passed its climax. At home, Lancashire distress had 
abated ; the harvest had been good; the public purse was full. 
Everybody, so far as politics was concerned, was waiting quietly 
for the dissolution of Parliament. 

The new elections took place in July. The one which con- 
cent]-ated public attention was that for the Oxford University. 
Mr. Gladstone had represented that exceptional constituency for 
eighteen years, but on this occasion he was beaten by Mr. 
Gathorne Hardy by a majority of one hundred and eighty 
votes ; he then went to South Lancashire, and was returned hj 
a small majority. The total result of the elections was the re- 
turn of three hundred and sixty-seven Liberals and two hun- 
dred and ninety Conservatives, a gain of fifty from the late House. 



1865-6.] VICTORIA. 603 

A general order addressed by General Grant on June 2, 
1S65, "• to the soldiers of the armies of the United States," in 
thanking tlieni for their patriotic exertions, formally announced 
the termination of hostilities. The armies were everywhere 
disbanded as soon as possible, the men returning to their pur- 
suits of industry. By October 15th upward of seven hundred 
and eighty-five thousand men had been mustered out of the 
service. 

Toward the end of October alarming news arrived of an in- 
surrection of the negroes in Jamaica. Four hundred and 
thirty-nine persons were killed and one thousand houses were 
burned. Martial law was proclaimed, and on the arrival of 
troops the insurrection was put down. 

On the death of Lord Palmerston, the premiership was in- 
trusted for the second time to Earl Russell, w^ith Mr. Gladstone . 
as leader in the House of Connnons. 

The queen opened her seventh parliament (February 6, 1866), 
in person, for the first time since the prince consort's death. On 
March 12th Mr. Gladstone brought forward his scheme of re- 
form, proposing to extend the franchise in counties and l)oroughs, 
but the opposition of the moderate Liberals, and their joining 
the Conservatives, proved fatal to the measure, and in conse- 
quence the ministry of Earl Russell resigned. The government 
had been personally weakened by the successive deaths of Mr. 
Sidney Herbert, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, the Duke of New- 
castle, Earl of Elgin, and Lord Palmerston. 

The queen sent for the Earl of Derby to form a Cabinet, wdio, 
although the Conservative party was in the minority in the 
House of Commons, accepted the responsibility of undertaking 
the management of the government : he as Premier and First 
Lord of the Treasury ; Mr. Disraeli, Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer ; Mr. Walpole, Home Secretary ; Lord Stanley, Secre- 
tary of the Colonies ; and Lord Cranborne, Secretary of State 
for Foreign Affairs. 

The new arrangements having been completed. Lord Derby 
made a ministerial statement in the House of Lords July 9th, in 
eifect that at this late period of the season, and the " Budget " 
having been disposed of, it was out of the question that the new 



604 VICTORIA. [1866-7. 

goveniinent sliould do more than wind np tlie bnsiness of the 
session, and on August 10, 18GG, Parliament was prorogued. 

The miscarriage of Mr. Gladstone's reform bill led to period- 
ical demonstrations during the summer and autumn in favor of 
the extension of the franchise. 

One of the most severe commercial crises ever known made 
tlie summer of 1866 forever memorable in the history of bank- 
ing and finance. 

The marriage of the Princess Helena, the queen's third 
daughter, to Prince Frederick Christian Charles of Schleswig- 
IIolstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, took place at Windsor Cas- 
tle July 5, 1866. 

The state of Ireland Avas such as to excite grave and sorrow- 
ful reflections in the minds of those citizens of both countries 
who desired to see old wounds healed and old causes of animos- 
ity forgotten. The Fenians were causing nnicli trouble. The 
Lord Lieutenant wrote : " The state of affairs is very serious. 
The conspirators, undeterred by the punishment of so many of 
their 'leaders, are actively organizing an outbreak with a view to 
destroy the (pieen's authority." 

There were scattered over the country a number of agents 
swearing in members and prepared to take command when the 
moment sliould arrive. These men were of the most dangerous 
class. They were Irishmen imbibed with American ideas, 
thoroughly reckless, and possessing considerable military experi- 
ence. 

Parliament opened in February, 1867, by commission. ISTearly 
the whole time of the session was occupied by a bill for parlia- 
mentary reform. Amendments were from time to time pro- 
posed by Ml". Gladstone and the other Liberal members, but the 
ministers succeeded in passing their bill, which only applied to 
England and Wales. Owing to the unquiet state of Ireland the 
government did not propose to make any alterations in the elec- 
toral law of that country. To Scotland they wished to apply a 
measure very similar to the English one, only differing from it, 
in fact, so far as the exigencies of the Scotch law required. 

Household suffrage in its simple form, in the boroughs ; in 
the counties, a reduction of the qualification like that effected 



1867-8.] VICTORIA. 605 

in England and a moderate redistribution of seats, were the 
main featui'cs of the gx)\'ernment measure. 

The other subjects which occupied the attention of Parlia- 
ment during the year were, besides the various points of for- 
eign policy, church rates, religious tests in the universities, 
religious disabilities on various offices in Ireland, increase of the 
episcopate, national education, and the factory acts. 

An extraordinary session of Parliament was called to vote 
supplies for the Abyssinian expedition. 

Six English missionaries had been imprisoned by King Theo- 
dore, wdio considered that they had been acting against the in- 
terests of Abyssinia. Consul Cameron was sent on a mission 
to treat for their release. He was at first well received, but 
afterward imprisoned and loaded with chains. 

An expedition was consequently fitted out by the British 
government for their release and to punish the king. It was 
under command of Sir Kobert Xapier, and was to consist of 
about 12,000 men. The advance force was landed on the Beach of 
Zoulla, November, 18GT. The distance to Magdala, the point 
of attack, was four hundred miles, and on January 15, 1868, 
the army commenced its march. Engineers having preceded 
it to make the road passable, on April 11th Magdala was 
reached, and, after a heavy bombardment, that stronghold was 
captured, Theodore, finding all was lost, put a pistol to his 
head and summarily ended his miseries. 

On April 21:th the army broke up its encampment and took 
up its line of march for home. 

Parliament w^as dissolved April 11th, and summonses for a 
new election issued under the reform act of 1867, 

Owing to ill-health the Earl of Derby retired from the minis- 
try early in 1868, and was succeeded by Mr. Disraeli. 

The new elections gave a gain to the Liberal party in the net 
result of fifteen seats, equal to thirty votes on a division ; but 
their triumph w^as chequered by several minor reverses, among 
which the rejection of Mr, Gladstone for South Lancashire was 
the most remarkable. He had to console himself with the suf- 
frages of Greenwich, which had generously come to the rescue, 

Mr, Disraeli, finding himself in the minority and not wishing 



606 VICTORIA, [1868-70. 

to go tlirongli tlie form of meeting Parliament, placed his resig- 
nation in the hands of the queen, who immediately sent for Mr. 
Gladstone as the recognized head of the Liberal partj. lie 
formed a Cabinet, taking the place of First Lord of the Treas- 
ury ; Lord Hatherly, Lord Chancellor ; Lord de Grey and 
Ilipon, President of the Council ; Mr. Lowe, Chancellor of the 
Exchequer ; Mr. Bruce, Home Secretary ; Earl of Clarendon, 
Foreign Secretary ; Earl Granville, Colonial Secretary ; Mr. 
Cardwell, Secretary at War ; Mr. Chichester Fortescue, Secre- 
tary fur Ireland; Duke of Ai'gyll, Secretary for India; and 
Mr. Cliilders, Secretary of the Admiralty. 

The new parliament met December 10, 1868, Mr. Denison 
being re-elected Speaker, and then adjourned to the 29th to 
allow tlie new ministers to be re-elected, and the House was 
further prorogued to February 10, 1809, oil which day it was 
opened by commission. 

In the royal speech, after allusions had been made to the set- 
tlement of the rupture between Greece and Turkey and to the 
disturbances in New Zealand, the great legislati\'e project of 
the year was thus foreshadowed ; 

*The ecclesiastical arrano-ements of Ireland will be brougrht 
under your consideration at a very early date, and the legisla- 
tion which will be necessary in order to their final adjustment, 
will make the largest demands upon the wisdom of Parlia- 
ment." 

Mr. Gladstone lost no time in giving notice that on March 
1st he should move that the acts relating to the Irish Church Es- 
tablishment and the grant to Maynooth College be read, and that 
the House should then resolve itself into a committee to con- 
sider said acts. A bill to disestablish the Irish Churcli was then 
brought forward in the Connnons, and after a long debate was 
carried by a majority of 114 votes. It was not so successful in 
the Lords, where it met with great opposition, and was sent back 
to the House with many amendments which the Commons 
would not receive. But through the ability and discretion of 
Lord Cairns, the Chancellor, a compromise was secured, and on 
July 20tli it received the royal assent, the disestablishment to 
take place on January 1, 1871. A bill was then passed to abol- 



1870.] VICTORIA. 607 

isli the import duty of one shilling per quarter on corn, left 
bj Sir Robert Peel when he repealed the corn laws of 184G. 

This year was one of considerable suffering to large masses 
of the population, as the increase in pauperism too plainly 
showed. Trade was in a state of stagnation, but partially re- 
vived toward the close of the year, and gave indications of a 
more prosperous future. Although Fenianism had been so far 
suppressed in Ireland that the government ventured to allow 
the act for the suspension of the habeas corpus to expire, the 
spirit of disaffection now took the form of an agitation to ob- 
tain the release of the Fenian prisoners. 

Parliament met on February 8, 1870, and the great measure 
of the session, the Irish Land Bill, was soon afterward brought 
forward. Of the three branches which, according to Mr. Glad- 
stone's figure, had grown upon the tree of Protestant ascendancy 
in Ireland, one, the Church, had fallen. There remained the 
Land and Education ; the last was to be left for a futu:'e year. 
But with regard to the land the queen's speech was explicit. 
" It will be proposed to you to amend the laws respecting the 
occupation and acquisition of land in Ireland in a manner 
adapted to the peculiar circumstances of that country and calcu- 
lated, as her Majesty believes, to bring about improved relations 
between the several classes concerned in Irish agriculture, which 
collectively constitute the great bulk of the people. These pro- 
visions when matured by your partiality and wisdom, as her 
Majesty trusts, will tend to inspire, among persons with whom 
such sentiments may still be wanting, that steady confidence in 
the law and that desire to render assistance in its effective ad- 
ministration which mark her subjects in general, and thus will 
aid in consolidating the fabric of the empire."' 

A bill was therefore introduced on February 15th by Mr. 
Gladstone. The great change which the bill effected was in 
fact a change in legal presumption. Previously, the law pi-e- 
sumed all improvements to be the work of the landlord, and 
had given them to him. This bill proposed to reverse this pre- 
sumption, and to presume that improvements were the work of 
the occupier, giving to the landlord the business of showing the 
presumption wrong in any special case. 



COS VICTORIA. [1870-1. 

The direct liostility to the bill came from the extreme Irish 
party, Ijut, after a long debate, it was carried in the Commons 
by a large majority. It then went up to the House of Lords, 
where it met M'ith opposition, and, after some amendments, was 
carried, and received the royal assent on August 1st. The next 
bill brought in was the Elementary Education Bill, which soon 
became a bone of contention between the Episcopalians and 
Xonconformists, but it was also carried through both Houses, 
and became law. It brouo;ht education witlim the reach of 
ev^ery English child, and covered England with good schools. 

A bill was also passed which provided that any clergyman, 
wishing to relinquish the office of priest or deacon, might do so 
b}' signing a deed, to be registered by the bishop ; from the 
moment of his signing he was to be free to practise any trade 
or profession, and become a layman. The Married Woman 
Property Bill also passed. But the l)ills for abolishing reli- 
gious tests in universities, and also "The marriage of deceased 
wife's sister" bills, were lost. 

At the opening of the year 1871 the German armies were 
surrounding Paris, and the raw levies and beaten veterans of 
France were attempting a hopeless resistance. 

In England every one saw that the end of the struggle was 
approaching, and the public mind began uneasily 'to ask the 
question. What next? 

Parliament opened in February, 1871, by commission. A 
paragraph in the queen's speech read, "The time appears appro- 
priate for turning such lessons (as the Franco-German war) to 
account, by efforts more decisive than heretofore to practical 
improvement. In attempting this, you will not fail to bear in 
mind the special features in the position of this country, so 
favorable to the freedom and security of the people; and if the 
changes from a less to a more effective and elastic system of 
defensive military preparations shall be found to involve, at 
least for a time, an increase of various charges, your prudence 
and patriotism will not grudge the cost, so long as you are satis- 
fied that the end is important and the means judicious. Xo 
time will be lost in laying before you a bill for the better regu- 
lation of the army and the auxiliary land forces of the crown. 



1871.] VICTORIA. GOO 

and I hardly need commend it to your anxious and impartial 
consideration." 

The promised bill was introduced by Mr. Cardwell, the Sec- 
retary of State for tlie War Department, very early in the ses- 
sion ; the gi-oss addition to the nunierical strength of the army 
was to be nineteen thousand nine hundred and eighty men. 
Mr. Cardwell said the government had made up its mind that 
purchase in the army must be abolished, and that the control of 
the militia and other auxiliary forces must be taken away from 
the Lord Lieutenants, and given to the queen. 

Li fact, the abolition of purchase, and the increase of the effi- 
ciency of the reserve — 'together with certain provisions for giv- 
ing a local connection to every regiment — were at once seen to 
be the principal views of the bill. 

The bill passed the Comiuons, and went up to the Lords, 
where it was rejected by a vote of one hundred and fifty to one 
hundred and twenty-five. 

The way in which Mr. Gladstone met this defeat was origi- 
nal: Avith the suddenness for which his proceedings have at 
times been fatally famous, he abolished purchase in the army 
by A cou^ (fetat. 

It was known beforehand that purchase was only legal, so far 
as the Queen''s Regulations allowed it ; and clearly, therefoi-e, 
all that was technically required for its abolition was that the 
regulations should be altered so as to forbid it. But no one 
supposed that, after months of debate, and after a hostile vote 
in the House of Lords, any minister would have continued to 
advise such a stretch of prerogative. Mr. Gladstone, however, 
was equal to the situation. Two days after the division in the 
House of Lords, he announced to the astonished Llouse of Com- 
mons that purchase was already abolished ; her Majesty ha\ang 
been advised to cancel the old warrant which allowed it, and to 
issue a new warrant which forbade it. Therefore, he said, after 
the 1st of Kovember next purchase will cease to exist. 

The anger of the opposition at such a high-handed measure as 

this may be easily conceived. The Duke of Kichmond moved, 

and carried by a majority of eighty, a vote of censure in the 

Lords. In the House of Commons, though no vote of censure 

39 



QIQ VICTORIA. [1871-^ 

was attempted, many Liberals of mark sided with Mr. Disraeli 
in protesting against this resort to prerogative. Only a few of 
the other measures of this session deserve notice. The ballot 
was put off to the next session. The bill for legalizing marriage 
Avith a deceased wife's sister passed the Commons, but was re- 
jected by the Lords. The bill for tlie alM)litiou of religious 
tests in the universities was passed, but the distinction between 
lay and clerical fellowships was still retained. This year also 
saw the repeal of the Ecclesiastical Titles Act. 

The marriage of her Majesty's foui'th daughter, the Princess 
Louise, to the Marquis of Lome, the eldest son of the Duke of 
Argyll, was celebi'ated with great state at Windsor Castle, on 
March 21, IS 71. 

Toward the end of the year the Speaker of the House of 
Commons, Mr. Denison, resigned, and was soon after raised to 
the peerage as Loixl Ossington. He was succeeded by Mr. 
Brand, the member for Cambridgeshire. 

A Lligli Commission met at Washington, composed of Eng- 
lish and American statesmen, for the settlement of differences 
between the two countries owing to the injuries caused by alleged 
breaches of neutrality by England during the civil war, and tlie 
treaty of Washington was concluded May 8, 1S71, which re- 
sulted in the International Court of Arbitration M'hich met at 
Geneva the following year. The court was composed of five 
members, representing England, the United States, Italy, Brazil, 
and Switzerland. 

On September l-I, 1872, Count Sclopis, the chairman, de- 
clared the labors of the arbitrators terminated, and awarded 
the United States $15,500,000, to be paid by Great Britain for 
damages sustained. 

Tlie cession of the Dutch colonies on the Gold Coast to Great 
Britain, 1872, was the cause, the following year, of a war with 
the King of Ashantee. 

On the re-assembling of Parliament, 1873, Mr. Gladstone 
introduced his measure for destroj'ing the third branch of what 
he called the upas tree that overshadow^ed Ireland. The Irish 
University Bill, wdiich seemed at first to be regarded with favor 
by all parties, \vas defeated on a second reading by a majority 



18T3-4.] VICTORIA. 611 

of tliree against the govei-nnient ; but Mr. Disraeli declined to 
carrv on, M'itli the existino; House of Commons, the government 
which Mr. Gladstone expressed his wish to resign after a pre- 
miership of four years. 

The restored ministry accepted Mr. Fawcett's bill for the 
simple a!)olilion of tests in Trinity College and the University 
of Dublin. The session was however distinguished by the pas^ 
sage of Lord Chancellor Selborne's great measure for the com- 
bination of the courts of law and equity in one supreme court 
of judicature, and the establishment of a court of appeal. 

Tiiere also passed a new licensing act, an adulteration act, a 
public health act, an act for vote by ballot at parliamentary and 
municipal elections, and the amendment of the act of uniformity 
of 1662. 

Parliament was prorogued on August 10th. Greenwich Hos- 
pital M'as opened as a naval college this year. The Shah of 
Persia visited England, remaining from June 18th to July 5th. 
War was declared against Ashantee July 14, 1873. 

Three Ashantee armies, the centre one of twelve thousand 
men, had invaded the protected country of the Fantees, making 
straight for Cape Coast Castle ; they were met and repulsed at 
the Castle of Elmina by a British force, chiefly of seamen and 
marines, under connnand of Colonel Festing ; they had also im- 
prisoned some German missionaries. 

A force of four thousand men was despatched from England, 
nnder command of Major-General Sir Garnet Wolseley. The 
main body of the troops were kept on board ship, owing to the 
deadly climate, until the advance of sappers and some troops 
had prepared the road through the jungle to the frontiers, and 
all arrangements were made for a sudden march on Coomassie, 
the capital, distant about one hundred and forty miles from 
Cape Coast Castle. 

The troops landed early in January, 1874, and after some 
sharp fighting on the road entered Coomassie February 4tli. 
Finding the king had tied, Sir Garnet, in vain hopes of an in- 
terview, after waiting two days, fired the town, and immediately 
with his troops marched back to the coast and embarked his 
men, his object being accomplished. A treaty was made with 



(512 VICTORIA. [1ST4. 

the agents of tlie king stipulating to abolish human sacrifice, to 
pay a sum of money as indenmity for the war, and promising 
to keep tlie peace with their neighbors. The missionaries had 
already been released. 

The marriage of Alfred, Diike of Edinburgh, to the Grand 
Ducliess Marie Alexandrovena, only daughter of the Czar Alex- 
ander of Russia, was celebrated at St. Petersburg January 23, 
187 Jr. • 

The dissolution of Parliament was suddenly announced by 
proclamation January 20th, 

The general elections — the first held undei' the joint oper- 
ations of the new reform and ballot acts — made a change of no 
less than one hundred and ten votes in the balance of parties, 
giving the Conservatives a majority of over fifty votes on a 
division, and on February IT, 1ST4, Mr. Gladstone resigned 
without waiting the meeting of Parliament. 

The queen sent for Mr. Disraeli and instructed him to form 
a Cabinet, which he succeeded in doing, and on the 21st the 
following appointments were made : Mr. Disraeli, First Lord of 
the Treasury ; Lord Cairns, Lord Chancellor ; Lord Malmes- 
bury. Lord Privy Seal ; Duke of Richmond, President of the 
Council ; the Earl of Dei-by, Secretary of Foreign Affairs ; the 
Marquis of Salisbury, Secretary for Lidia ; Earl of Carnarvon, 
the Colonial Secretary ; Mr. Gathorne Hardy, Secretaiy at AVar ; 
Mr, R. A. Cross, the Home Department ; ,Mr. Hunt, Secretary 
of the Admiralty ; Sir Stafford Xorthcote, Chancellor of the 
Exchequer ; Lord John Manners, Postmaster-General, 

The celebrated Tichborne trial was brought to a close Feb- 
ruary 28th, and a sentence of fourteen years' penal servitude 
pronounced. 

The new parliament opened March 5, 1874. A message from 
the crown was read directing the House to elect a Speaker, 
when the Right Honorable Mr. Brand was re-elected M'ithout 
opposition, and both Houses adjourned until the 19th to enable 
ministers to be re-elected to their seats after accepting office. 

The session was opened March 19th by commission, the Lord 
Chancellor reading the speech from the throne. The principal 
items were : 



18T4-5.] VICTORIA. 613 

" My relations with all foreign powers continue to be most 
friendly. 1 shall not fail to exercise the influence arising from 
those cordial relations for the maintenance of European peace 
and the faithful observance of international obligations. 

" The war with the King of Ashantee has terminated in the 
capture and destruction of his capital, and in negotiatic»ns which, 
I trust, may lead to a more satisfactory condition of afl'airs than 
has hitherto prevailed on the west coast of Africa." 

Parliament closed its short session on August 7th ; its course 
was peaceable and almost dull, many of the promised measures 
having been abandoned for this session by the government. 

In Septend)er the annexation of the Fiji Islands, by the de- 
sire of the inhabitants, secured a station in the Pacific of great 
importance for coiumimication with Australia and New Zea- 
land. 

Affairs in England were now in a satisfactory condition. 
New means of communication at home and abroad had been 
supplied by a further reduction in the postage, by the placing of 
the telegraph in the United Kingdom under tiie post-office de- 
partment, by the laying of new cables connecting Europe still 
more closely with the East and West Indies, with America and 
Australia, and by the opening of the Pacific Railroad and the 
Mount Cenis tunnel. 

Mr, Gladstone's attendance in the House of Commons had 
through the late session been fitful and uncertain, and on Janu- 
ary 13, 1875, he addressed a letter to Earl Granville, in which 
he wa'ote : 

"Before determining whether I should offer to assume a 
charge which might extend over a length of time, I have re- 
viewed, with all the care in my power, a number of considera- 
tions, both public and private, of which a portion, and these not 
by any means insignificant, were not in existence at the date of 
my former letter (March 12th). 

" The result has been that I see no public advantage in my 
continuing to act as the leader of the Liberal party ; and that 
at the age of sixty -five, and after forty-two years of a lal)orious 
public life, I think myself entitled to retire on the present 
oppoj'tunity. This retirement is dictated to me by my personal 



014: VICTORIA. [1S75. 

views as to the best metliod of spending the closing years of nij 
life." 

Various were the opinions passed upon tliis step by the organs 
of national opinion. A meeting of the Liberal members of 
Parliament was held at the Reform Club on February 3d, and 
they nominated the Marquis of llartington as their leader in 
the House of Commons. 

It was the intention of the queen to have opened Parliament 
in person, but owing to the serious illness of Prince Leopold 
she was unable to do so. It was opened by commission on Feb- 
ruary 6th. The speech from the throne read : " It is with great 
satisfaction that I again meet you and resort to the assistance 
and advice of my Parliament. 

" I continue to receive assurances of friendship from all for- 
eign powers. The peace of Europe has remained, and I trust 
will remain, unl>i-oken ; to preserve and consolidate it will ever 
be a main object of my endeavor. 

" The conference held at Brussels on the laws and usages of 
war has concluded its sittings. My government have caref idly 
examined the report of its proceedings, but bearing in mind, on 
the one hand, the importance of the principles involved, and on 
the other the widely divergent opinions which were there ex- 
pressed, and the improbability of their being reconciled, I have 
not thought it right to accede to proposals Mdnch have been 
made for further negotiations on the subject. 

" The differences which have arisen l>er,ween China and -Ia])an, 
and which at one time threatened to lead to war between those 
states, have been happily adjusted. 

" The past year has been one of general prosperity and prog- 
ress throughout my colonial enipire. . An amule harvest has re- 
stoi'cd prosperity to the provinces of my Eastern empire, which 
last year was visited by famine. By the blessing of Providence 
my Indian government , has been able to avert the loss of life 
which I had reason to apprehend from that great calamity. 

" The various statutes of an exceptional or temporary charac- 
ter, now in force for the preservation of peace in Ireland, Avill 
be brought to your notice, with a view to determine whether 
some of them may not be dispensed with. 



1875.] VICTORIA. Glo 

" Several measures, which were iniavoidablv postponed at the 
end of last session will be again introduced." 

Sir Stafford Northcote's budget was marked by an effort to 
reduce the national debt by means of a new sinking fund, pro- 
viding for the regular annual appropriation of £28,000,000 to 
the cliarge of the debt, which was sanctioned by Parliament 
August 10th. 

Two elections for members of Parliament, which happened to 
take place on the same day, led to much sensational excitement — 
that of Mr. John Mitchell for Tipperary and Dr. Kinaley for 
Stoke-upon-Trent. Mitchell was a well-known agitator, who, 
sentenced to transportation f-or his share in the Irish rebellion 
of 184:8, had broken his parole in Australia and escaped to* the 
United States and there had become a citizen. On a vacancy 
for a seat in Parliament taking place for Tipperary he addressed, 
the electors from New York, and was by tbem nominated and 
returned. Immediatelj^ on the official announcement being 
made to the House Mr. Disraeli moved the following resolu- 
tion, and which was carried : " That John Mitchell, having 
been adjudged guilty of treason-felony, and sentenced to fourteen 
years' transportation, and not ha-ving endured the full term of 
his sentence, nor having received pardon, has become and con- 
tinues to be incapable to sit in Parliament." 

A new writ was issued, and Mitchell was again returned ; 
but this time he had a rival in the person of Captain Moore, 
who claimed the seat. Three months afterward Mitchell died. 

The budget was an unexciting one ; the Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer had neither a deficiency to meet nor a surplus to dis- 
pose of. 

The South African colonies this year occupied a good deal of 
attention. Sir Garnet Wolseley had been sent out as High Com- 
missioner to settle matters at the Cape Colony and IS^atal. 

The Prince of Wales embarked October 11th for a visit to 
India, for which the House of Commons voted £60,000. He 
arrived at Bombay November Stli, and was received with great 
enthusiasm by the native princes and British residents. He 
travelled through tlie greater part of the empire, returning to 
Bombay March 11th, and embarked for England. 



616 VICTORIA. [1876. 

The third session of tlie ninth Parliament of Qneen Yictoria 
was opened by the queen in person February 8, 1876. The 
text of the speech was as follows : " My i-elations with all 
foreign powers continue to be of a coi-dial character. The insur- 
rectionary movement which during the last six months has been 
maintained in the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, and which the troops of the Sultan have up to the present 
tiuie been unable to repress, has excited the attention and in- 
terest of the great European powers. I have considered it my 
duty not to stand aloof from the efforts now being made by 
allied and friendly governments to bring about a pacification of 
the disturbed districts, and I have accordingly, while respecting 
the independence of the Porte, joined in urging on the Sultan 
the expediency of adopting such measures of administrative re- 
form as may remove all reasonable cause of discontent on the 
part of his Christian subjects. 

"I have agreed to purchase, subject to your sanction, the 
shares which belonged to the Khedive of Egypt in the Suez 
Canal, and I rely with confidence on your enabling me to com- 
plete a transaction in which the public interests are deeply 
involved. 

"• The affairs of my ColoTiial Empire, the general prosperity 
of which has continued to advance, have received a large share 
of my attention." 

On March 23d a bill passed the House of Commons, after a 
long debate and some opposition, entitled " The Royal Titles 
Bill," giving to the queen the title of " Empress of India," and 
on May 1, 1876, proclamation was made by the Sheriffs of Lon- 
don and Middlesex, and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and in 
India, at Delhi, with great solemnities, on January 1, 1877. 

The London Gazette of July 18th contained the official an- 
nouncement " That the queen has granted the dignities of a 
Viscount and an Earl of the United Kingdom upon the Right 
Honorable Benjamin Disraeli and the heirs male of his body 
lawfully begotten by the titles of Yiscount Ilughenden and 
Earl of Beaconsfield. 

Pullman palace cai-s were first introduced on English railroads 
August 31, 1876. The Arctic expedition, consisting of II. M. 



1876-7.] VICTORIA. 617 

sliips Alert and Discovery, entered Portsmouth harbor Novem- 
ber 2d, after seventeen months' absence, having reached 82° 27' 
north latitude, the highest point ever yet attained by a ship. 

Affairs in the East were becoming serious, and a conference 
of the great powers was appointed to be held in Constantinople 
in December, the Marquis of Salisbury representing Great 
Britain. 

At the annual banquet at Guildhall the Earl of Beaconsfield, 
in his speech, said: "My tirst object is peace, my second the 
amelioration of the suffering nationalities." 

" AVe have nothing to gain by war. We ai'e essentially a non- 
aggressive power ; there are no cities nor provinces that we 
desire to appropriate. We have built up an empire of which 
we are proud, and our proudest boast is this— that that empire 
subsists as much upon sympathy as upon force." 

'" But if the struggle comes, it should also be recollected that 
there is no country so prepared for war as England, because 
there is no country' whose resources are so great." 

" In a rio-hteous cause — and I trust that England will never 
embark in war except in a righteous cause, a cause that concerns 
her liberty, her independence, or her empire — England is not a 
country that will have to inquire whether she can enter into a 
second or a third campaign. In a righteous cause England will 
commence a fight that will not end until right is done." 

The several bills that passed through Parliament were of 
local interest. The changes of this yeai^ reduced the ministerial 
majority by five seats, but still with a substantial working 
majority. 

On February 8, 1877, the queen opened the fourth session of 
her ninth Parliament. The speech read as follows : 

" It is with much pleasure that I again resort to the advice 
and assistance of my Parliament. 

" The hostilities which before the close of the last session had 
broken out, between Turkey on the one hand and Servia and 
Montenegro on the other, engaged my most serious attention, 
and I anxiously waited for an opportunity when my good offices, 
together with those of my allies, might be usefully interposed. 

" This opportunity presented itself by the solicitation of 



Ql^ VICTORIA. [1877. 

Servia for onr mediation, tlie offer of wliicli was ultimate!}' 
entertained by tlie Porte. 

" In the course of the negotiations I deemed it expedient to 
lay down, and in concert with the other powei's, to submit to 
the Porte, certain bases upon which 1 held that not only peace 
might be brought about with the Principalities, but the perma- 
nent pacification of the disturbed provinces, including Bulgaria, 
and the amelioration of their condition might be effected. 

" Agreed to by the powers, they required to be expanded and 
M'orked out l)y negotiation, or by confei'ence accompanied by an 
armistice. The Porte, though not accepting the basis, and pro- 
posing other terms, Avas willing to submit them to the equitable 
consideration of the powers. 

" While proceeding to act in this mediation I thought it right, 
after inquiring into the facts, to denounce to the Porte the ex- 
cesses ascertained to have been connnitted in Bulgaria, and to 
express my reprobation of their perpetrators. 

"An armistice having been arranged, a conference met at 
Constantinople for the consideration of extended terms, in ac- 
cordance with the original basis, in which conference I was 
represented by a special envoy as m'cU as by my ambassador. 

"In taking these steps my object has throughout been to 
maintain the peace of Eni-ope, and to bring al)0ut the better 
government of the disturbed provinces, without infringing upon 
the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire. 

"My assuuq:)tion of the imperial title at Delhi was welcomed 
by the chiefs and people of India with professions of affection 
and loyalty most grateful to my feelings. 

" It is with deep regret that I have to announce a calamity in 
that part of my dominions which will demand the most earnest 
watchfulness on the pai't of the government there. A famine, 
not less serious than that of 1S73, has overspread a large por- 
tion of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay. I am confident 
that' every resource will be employed, not merely in arrest of 
this present famine, but in ol)taining fresh experience for the 
prevention or mitigation of such visitations for the future. 

" The prosperity and progress of my Colonial Empire remain 
unchecked, although the proceedings of the government of the 



1S77.] VICTORIA. 019 

Transvaal Hepublic, and the hostilities in which it is engaged 
with the neighboring tribes have caused some apprehensions for 
the safety of my subjec^ts in South Africa. I trust, however, 
that the measures which I have taken will suffice to prevent 
any serious evil. 

" I submit to you the several measures which may be laid be- 
fore you for your consideration, and I trust that the blessing of 
the Almighty will attend your labors and direct your efforts." 

The premier was now transferred from the Lower to the 
Upper House, a most unusual thing, while in possession of that 
office. The leadership of the House of Commons was now in- 
trusted to Sir Stafford jS^orthcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

The debates on the Eastern question occupied a large portion 
of the time of both Houses. 

The " Budget " for the current twelve months showed an 
estimated sni-plus of £226,000, the revenue being £79,020,000, 
and expenditure £78,794.000. 

On July 3ist, a band of Irish obstructives endeavored, through 
an abuse of the rules of the House, to clog altogether the wheels 
of legislation. It was the crisis of a strange plot developed 
for the first time within the Avails of St. Stephens, and continued 
for twenty-six hours Avithout intermission, which caused the fol- 
lowing resolutions to be passed by a vote of 282 to 32 : 

" That, when a member, after being twice declared out of 
order, shall be pronounced by Mr. Speaker, or by the Chairman 
of Connnittees, as the case may be, to be disregarding the au- 
thority of the Chair, the debate shall be at once suspended, and, 
on a motion being made in the House that the member be not 
heard during the remainder of the debate or during the setting 
of the committee, such motion, after the member complained of 
has been heard in explanation, shall be put without further 
debate. 

" That in Committee of the whole House, no member have 
power to move more than once during the debate on the same 
question, either that the Chairman do report progress, or that 
the Chairman leave the chair, nor to speak more than once to 
such motion, and that no member who has made one of those 
motions have power to make the other on the same question." 



620 VICTORIA. [1877. 

After the passage of several local bills Parliament M^as pro- 
rogued, after which the political history of the remainder of the 
year was chietly connected with the Eastern question, and a 
schism in the Cabinet became apparent between a peace party 
and a war party, the former being led by tiie Earl of Derby 
and the latter by the Premier. 

During the summer and fall several engagements had taken 
place between the Russians and the Turks with varied success. 
The Russians had been twice repulsed before Plevna with great 
loss, when they determined to invest and starve the garrison to 
surrender. 

Osman Pasha, who commanded at Plevna, isolated from all 
help, held his post with unflinching resolution; finding that no 
aid was at hand he resolved, December lOtli, to force his way 
through the Russian entrenchments. But the attempt was 
unsuccessful ; he was wounded, driven back, and forced to 
sui-render. This disastrous event cost the Turks over thirty 
thousand pi-isoners and four hundred guns. This defeat, added 
to the loss of Kars, a short time previously, was ruinous to their 
cause. Meanwhile the Russians crossed the Balkans, defeated 
the Turks, and took Sofia. 

Such heavy losses, following in rapid succession, convinced 
the Porte that all further attempts to continue the war was 
hopeless, and at the end of the year 1877 the Sultan request- 
ed the mediation of England. 

Mr. Gladstone visited Ireland in Octolier. In a speech, on 
being presented with the freedom of the city of Dublin, he 
said, " I am bound to say, in the first place, that I attach no 
value to our land laws in respect to entail and settlement. On 
the contrary, I am in favor of rather bold and important, if not 
sweeping changes. Greater freedom ought to be established, 
and I think that not merely economical but social mischief re- 
sults from the present system. Therefore, I am prepared to 
entertain on that subject a great change." 

Lord Beaconsfield, in the speech at the Mansion House din- 
ner, in ]S^ovember, said : " ]S^o sooner had war been declared 
(between Russia and Turkey) than her Majesty's government 
felt it to be their duty to annomice at once, in language that 



1877] VICTORIA. 621 

could not be mistaken, tlie policy which, under the circumstances, 
they intended to pursue. It was not a policy framed for the 
occasion, and merely because war had been declared ; it was a 
policy which from the opportunities that had been afforded us 
for some time we had deeply considered." 

" That policy we have unanimously adopted, and from that 
policy we have never swerved. What, then, was tliat policy ? 
It was a policy of conditional neutrality. In the circumstances 
of the case we did not believe it was to the honor or the interest 
of England, or of Turkey, that we should take any part in the 
impending contest. 

"But while we announced the neutrality which* we were 
prepared to observe, we declared at the same time, that that 
neutrality must cease if British interests were assailed or me- 
naced. 

" Cosmopolitan critics, men who are the friends of every 
country save their own, have denounced this policy, as a selfish 
policy. My Lord Mayor, it is as selfish as patriotism. But it 
is the policy of her Majesty's Government. It is the policy 
they adopted from the first, it is the policy they have main- 
tained, and it continues to be their policy to believe that it is 
their duty to protect British interest abroad, and it is a policy 
which they believe the people of this country have sanctioned 
and approved." 

The closing events of the year in the East aroused the feeling 
of the people in England to check what now seemed to be the 
designs of Bussia on Constantinople and the threatened danger 
to our communications with India, and Parliament was sum- 
moned before the usual time. 

The proposal to send up the British fleet within the Darde- 
nelles was opposed in the Cabinet by the Earls of Derby and, 
Carnarvon, and the latter resigned the secretaryship of the colo- 
nies in consequence. 

Lord Lawrence, in a long letter to the Times, to which before 
the close of the year events were to give significance, protested 
against a recent change of policy upon the northwest frontier 
of India. " lie disapproved the occupation of Quettah, twenty- 
five miles beyond the Bolan Pass, on the ground that the place 



622 VICTORIA. [187S. 

was useless, unless we intended a forward movement on C^anda- 
liar and Herat, which he strongly deprecaied. It would bit- 
terly irritate all Afghans, be an excessive expense, and alienate 
the minds of all the native troops employed," 

Parliament was opened January IT, 1878, by connnission. 
The following were the principal points of tlie speech from the 
throne. 

" I have thought fit to assen)ble you before the usual period 
of your meeting in order that you might become acquainted 
with the efforts I have nuide to terminate the war now devas- 
tating Eastern Europe and Ai-mcnia, and that I might have the 
advice and assistance of my Parliament in the present state of 
public affairs. 

" You are aware that after having unsuccessfully striven to 
avert that war I declared my intention to observe neutrality 
in a contest which I lamented, but had failed to prevent, so 
long as the interests of my empire, as defined by my govern- 
ment, were not threatened. I expressed, at the same time, my 
earnest desire to avail myself of any opportunity which might 
present itself for promoting a peaceful settlement of the ques- 
tions at issue between the belligerent powers. 

" The successes obtained by the Russian .arms both in Europe 
and Asia convinced the Porte that it should endeavor to bring 
to a close hostilities which were causing immense sufferings to 
its subjects. 

''The government of the Sultan accordingly addressed to the 
neuti'al powers — parties to the treaties relating to the Turkish 
Empire — an appeal for their good offices. It did not, however, 
ap|)ear to the majority of the powers thus addressed that they 
could usefully comply with the request, and they communicated 
this opinion to the Porte. 

"The Porte then determined to make a separate appeal to 
my govermnent, and I at once agreed to make an inquiry of 
the Emperor of Russia whether his Imperial Majesty would 
entertain overtures for peace. The emperor expressed in reply 
his earnest desire for peace, and stated at the same time his 
opinion as to the course which shoidd be pursued for its attain- 
ment. 



1S7S.] VICTORIA. (523 

" My relations with foreign powers continue to be friendly, 

" I am thankful that the terrible famine which has ravaged 
Southern India is nearly at an end. Strenuous and successful ex- 
ertions have been made by my local governments to relieve the 
sufferings of the population, and in that duty they have been 
powerfidly seconded by the liberal aid of my people at home 
and in my colonies. 1 have directed that an inquiry should be 
made into the measures most proper to diminish the danger of 
such calamities for the fiiture. 

" The condition of native aft'aii's in South Africa has of late 
caused me some anxiety, and has demanded the watchful atten- 
tion of my government. I have thought it expedient to rein- 
force my troops in that part of my empire. I trust that a peace- 
able and satisfactory settlement of all differences may be shortly 
attained." 

In closing the debate on the address, the Marquis of Salis- 
bury testiiied with extreme warmth to the " almost tormenting 
desire for ])eace evinced by the Czar, and assured the Lords 
that if it were possible to ask for a secret session, he could sat- 
isfy them that we were not isolated in our diplomacy, or forced 
to act alone. He maintained, however, that the war itself is a 
far greater evil than any of the chronic and cruel oppressions 
which caused the war, and he challenged Parliament either to 
give its implicit confidence to the government, and so enable it 
to act with force in these great issues, or to replace it with one 
in Avhich it could place implicit confidence. 

Xews arrived in England that the- Russians were threatening 
Gallipoli and the Dardanelles, and had advanced within thirty 
miles of Constantinople. The British fleet was ordered to the 
Dardanelles, on which the Earl of Derljy resigned his seat in 
the Cabinet, and was succeeded by the Marquis of Salisbury in 
the Foreign Office. The Liberals at once withdrew their oppo- 
sition to the vote for £6,000,000 demanded by government for 
military preparations. 

On February 24, 1878, the Grand Duke Nicholas fixed his 
headqtiarters at San Stefano, near Constantinople, and there a 
preliminary treaty was signed, by whicii Roumania, Montenegro, 
and Servia were to be independent states. 



624 VICTORIA. tlS'S. 

Tlie government had now commenced military and naval 
preparations in earnest, and for several weeks pi-evioiis to the 
signing of the treaty of San Stefano all was talk and rnmor — one 
day of war, and another of peace. The war party of society 
and the clubs was lond and busy, and in spite of occasional big 
words in the Houses of Parliament, the government must be 
credited with a real desire to preserve peace with Russia, 
though unable to silence the language of suspicion and dislike 
with which too many of their supporters openly expressed their 
feelings toward her. 

The general sense of England was too strongly against war to 
allow of her drifting into it, notwithstanding a series of noisy 
park and street meetings, for the benefit of the rough element, 
who love to war against good clothes and railings. 

Mr. Gathorne Hardy, afterward created Lord Cranbrook, 
took the place of Lord Salisbury in the Indian Office, and 
Colonel Stanley received the appointment of Secretary at War. 

The Chancellor of the Exchequer, in presenting the budget, 
informed the House that the revenue for 1S7T-TS had tm-ned 
out very satisfactory, showing a surplus of income over expendi- 
ture of £859,803 ; and for the coming twelve months an income 
of £79,460,000, and an expenditure of £81,019,676, he was 
sorry to say, estimated a deficiency of £1,560,000, and he pro- 
posed to meet that deficiency with twopence on the pound on 
incomes and an extra tax of fourpence per pound on tobacco. 

The Earl of Beaconsfield brought down to the Lords a mes- 
sage from the crown stating that her Majesty, in existing cir- 
cumstances, had thought it right to call out the reserve forces 
for permanent service. 

Parliament adjourned on April 12th for the Easter holidays. 
The following day a Calcutta telegram announced that orders 
had been received by the Indian government to despatch a force 
of seven thousand native troops to Malta, which, on the reas- 
sembling of Parliament, caused a violent debate on the legality 
of such a course. 

Diplomacy brought about a congress instead of a M'ar, and 
Lords Beaconsfield and Salisbury represented Great Britain. 
The first meeting was held at Berlin, June 13, 1878, and resulted 



1878.] VICTORIA. (]25 

in the treaty of Berlin, between Great Britain, Germany, Aus- 
tria, France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the settlement of 
affairs in the East. On August 3d the treaty was ratified. 

A defensive alliance between Great Britain and Turkey was 
signed at Constantinople. England engaged to join Turkey, in de- 
fending the territories left to Turkey in Asia against any future 
attempts at conquest by Bussia ; while in return, the Sultan 
promised to introduce reforms to be hei-eafter agreed on, and, 
as a provision for executing these engagements, he assigned the 
island of Cyprus to be occupied and governed by England. 
That island was chosen as commanding the chief access from 
the Mediterranean to Syria and the Euphrates Valley, and well 
situated for the defence of the Suez Canal. 

Parliament was prorogued on August IGth. The Eastern 
question having absorbed the principal time of Parliament, the 
business of law-making was neai'ly suspended. 

Trouble was now brewing in Afghanistan. General Boberts 
started for Peshawur with secret orders, and a force of twelve 
thousand men was ordered to be in readiness for the frontier. 
It had been England's settled policy, since IS-tS, to maintain a 
friendly understanding with Afghanistan ; but now the reigning 
Ameer, Sliere Ali (son of Dost Mohammed), had shown the 
resolution to place himself in the hands of Bussia, receiving 
her envoy at Cabul, while he turned back a British envoy on 
the frontier. 

To avenge an insult which threatened British influence in 
Asia, an army entered Afghanistan November, 1878, and soon 
accomplished its object. Shere Ali fied in the vain hope of 
help from Russia, was disappointed, and died early in 1879, 

An early session of Parliament was called December 5, 1878, 
and was open^ed by commission. The speech read as follows : 

" I regret that I have been obliged to call your attendance at 
an unusual, and probably, to most of you, an inconvenient 
season. 

" The hostility toward my Indian government manifested by 
the Ameer of xifghanistan, and the manner in which he re- 
pulsed my friendly mission, left me no alternative but to make 
a perenqjtory demand for redress. 
40 



(]26 VICTORIA. [1S7S-9. 

" Tin's demand having been disregarded, I have directed an 
expedition to be sent into his territory, and I have taken the 
earliest opportunity of calling yon together and making to you 
the communication required by law. I have directed that 
papers on the subject shall be laid before you. 

" I receive from all foreign powers assurances of their friendly 
feelings, and have every reason to believe that the ari-angements 
for the pacification of Europe, made by the treaty of Berlin, 
will be successfully carried into effect." 

In the debate on the address, Lord Cranbrook stated "that the 
Russians had considered Afghanistan as the weak point in our 
armor; they thought they could tarn our watch-dog, the Ameer, 
into a bloodhound against us, and our whole object in under- 
taking the war was to obtain a safe frontier." 

Or December 14, 1878, died the Princess Alice, Duchess of 
Hesse, second daughter of Queen Victoria, from diphtheria, 
while in loving attendance upon her children, all of whom had 
suifered from the disease. 

In the issue of the Times of December 31st Avas the fohow- 
ing : " The depression of trade which has been deplored for the 
past four years, has not been removed; it has sunk, indeed, to 
a lower level than liefore. Fortunately, a good harvest and 
plentiful supplies from all foreign countries, have kept down the 
price of bread, and bad trade has so far profited the consumer 
that all the necessaries of life have been cheaper than they were 
in prosperous times. If it were not for this mitigation, the 
effect of repeated reductions in the rate of wages — ineffectually 
opposed by strikes, of withdrawals of capital, of bankruptcies 
and liquidations, of banking disasters, of alarms in the money 
market, of ministerial, embarrassments in finance, and of aug- 
mented taxation, actual or prospective — would have been far 
more severely felt. As it was, in spite of some distress and 
consequent discontent throughont the country, the poor law re- 
turns showed no extraordinai-y increase of. pauperism until the 
last few weeks of the year, when the hard weather and want of 
employment combined to cause widespread suffering." 

At the beo-innino; of the year 1879 the mind of En<i'land had 
comparative rest from questions of foreign policy. The conduct 



1S79.] VICTORIA. (327 

of past affairs by tlie government M^as still discnssed before keen 
audiences in extra parliamentary ntterances, but there was no 
fresh matter for controversy, no immediate prospect of new 
complications. It appeared as if the issues between the two 
great parties of the state, to be fought out at the general elec- 
tion to which politicians were looking forward, might be re- 
garded as complete, and the ministry must stand or fall l)y its 
conduct in the momentous crisis of the j)ast two years. The 
country was not pi-epared for any sudden development of 
testing consequences, and its anxieties were directed homeward, 
to the depression of trade, and the pressure of hard times ou 
the poor. The distress produced by want of employment had 
been aggravated by a winter of great severity, from all the 
large towns came the sorrowful tale : thousands of families, 
which in times of ordinary prosperity lived in decent comfort, 
were said to be on the brink of starvation. Columns of the 
newspapers were filled every day with statistics of the numbers 
in receipt of relief, and with startling cases of individual hard- 
ship. The pressure w^as peculiarly severe on those who strug- 
gled against pauperism to the last. Many were found by 
benevolent visitors in a state of absolute famine, having pawned 
all their scanty possessions, and even their clothes, to obtain 
food. 

Large sums were voted by municipalities, relief funds were 
swelled by munificent subscriptions, and no effort was spared to 
discover those who were too proud to apply for assistance. All 
through the cold month of January benevolence had no lack of 
occupation. 

■The outbreak of the Zulu war was the first external affair 
that arrested public attention. 

For several months war with the Zulus was considered in- 
evitable, but outside the circle of the government there was no 
thought of the troubles that were brewing in South Africa. 

The difiiculties out of which the war with Cetchwayo grew, 
were of long standing, though it w'as solely the act and will of 
the High Commissioner, Sir Bartle Frere, that precipitated a 
forcible solution. The government were of opinion up to the 
last moment, that everything might be settled by the exercise 



628 VICTORIA. [1879. 

of re;isonal)lo compromise and fori )earai ice, and Sir Henry Bul- 
wer, the Lient. -Governor of Xatal, liad for two years and more 
been trying to smooth over the disturbed relations with the 
ZnUi king bj such means. His motives for forbearance were 
strengthened by his iirm and expressed persuasion that for the 
original disturbance of those relations, the white men, the Boers 
of the Republic of the Transvaal, and not the blacks, were to 
blame. 

The Boers, in the year IS 76, addressed a message to Cetcli- 
wayo demanding the surrender of certain fugitives, the acknow- 
ledgment of their protectorate over the Aniaswazis, and the ac- 
knowledgment of a new boundary which they had proclaimed. 
The question of boundary lay at the root of the whole matter. 

Cetchwayo was by no means disposed to submit. He at once 
called out his regiments, and despatched messengers to Katal, 
complaining of the aggression of the Boers, asking what he had 
done to l)e turned out of his own house, and declaring lie M^ould 
fig-lit to the death against such an attem|)t. 

The Boers were now warned that her Majesty's government 
would recognize no extension of their territory, and that they 
disclaimed any intention of making war on the Zulus. 

The storm seemed thus to have blown over, and the Boers 
were cautioned against encroaching on the native tribes ; bnt 
they did not long remain quiet, and in a short time were at war 
with another powerful chief Sikukuni, which nltimately led to 
the annexation of the Republic of the Transvaal to the govern- 
ment of Xatal. 

Trouble still continued between the border residents and the 
Zulus. Sir Bartle Frere sent Cetchwayo his ultimatum, stating, 
"1st. That he had broken his coronation promises, by putting 
people to death without trial, and permitting indiscriminate 
shedding of blood ; and he was required to give guarantees to 
the Great Council of the Zulu nation and the British govern- 
ment for the future observance of these promises. 2d. As a 
guarantee for this he was required to abolish his present mili- 
tary system of tril)al quotas, which should be approved of by 
the Great Council and the British government. 3d. He was to 
accept the presence and advice of a British Resident, -ith. To 



1S79.] VICTORIA. 629 

permit the return to Zul aland, and engage for the future protec- 
tion of missionaries and their converts. Lastly, a demand was 
made for the surrender of certain criminals, and the payment 
of certain fines, and thirty days was given for an answer." 

The time having expired, and Cetchwayo showing no signs 
of yielding. Sir Bartle Frere, on January 4, 1879, placed the 
matter in the hands of Lord Chelmsford, the Commander-in- 
chief of the forces in South Africa. 

The news which reached England, on February 11th, of the 
terrible disaster at Isandula, was a shock for which the na- 
tion was totally unprepared ; were the victorious Zulus, it w^as 
asked, likely to overrun jSTatal ? Could the troops still in the 
colony hold their own till re-enforcements from England could 
reach them ? The 21th Kegiment had been entirely annihilated 
at Isandula, by being surrounded by a body of twenty thou- 
sand Zulus. But the gallant defence of Rorke's Di'ift, l)y a 
handful of men under Lieutenants Chard and Bromhead, went 
far to reassure pu],)lic feeling on these points, and also to in- 
tensify a very general impression that some one must have 
blundered befoi-e such a disaster could have fallen British arms. 

Re-enforcements were innnediately sent to the Cajie, and in 
time the military prestige was restored. Lord Chelmsford con- 
tinued on the defensive until i-e-enforced, and the victory of 
Ulinda, Avhere the Zulus were completely beaten, decided the 
war. The Zulus disbanded their regiments, and the king with 
a few followers took shelter in one of his inaccessible kraals. 
Meantime Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived at Natal and took com- 
mand. Lord Chelmsford returning to England. 

After a time Cetchwayo was hunted down, taken prisoner, 
and sent to the Cape, where he now remaius. In time the 
country was entirely pacified, and Sir Garnet Wolselej' i-eturned 
to England. 

The troops were advancing on Afghanistan, two brigades of 
Genei-al Browne's column were camped at Jellalabad, the second 
cohmm under General Roberts had captured the Perwar Pass 
and retired to winter in the Koorum Valley. General Stewart, 
with the Quettah column, was making his way slowly but with- 
out opposition to Candahar ; all fighting in pitched battles was 



g30 VICTORIA. [1879. 

at an end, and only attacks made by the bill tribes npon scattered 
detaelinients and convoys. Tliere M'as some cnriosity to know 
what Yakoob Khan wonld do, l)nt tliere was no anticipation 
that he wonld be able to offer a serions resistance, and his sub- 
mission was daily expected. 

Parliament met on February 13, ISTO, two days after the 
arrival of the news of the disaster of Isandula. The subject 
of the war occupied the first place in the ministerial statement. 

On March 25tli in the House of Lords, and on the 2Tth in 
the Commons, a resolution was moved : 

" That this House, M'liile willing to support her Majesty's gov- 
erimient in all necessary measures for defending the possessions 
of her Majesty in South Africa, regrets that an ultimatum, 
Mdiich was calculated to produce immediate war, should have 
been presented to the Zulu king witliout authority from the 
responsible advisers of the crown, and tliat an offensive war 
should have been commenced without imperative and pressing 
necessity or adequate preparation ; and the House regrets that 
after the censure passed upon the High Commissioner by her 
Majesty's government, in the despatch of March 19, ISTO, the 
conduct of affairs in South Africa should be retained in his 
hand." The debate contnmed several nights, but the motion 
was lost in both Houses, and Sir Bartle Frere was retained in 
office. 

The Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, the queen's third 
son, was married, March 13th, at Windsor Castle, to the Princess 
Louise Marguerite of Prussia. The queen shortly after departed 
for Italy, and arrived at Baveno on the Lago Maggiore March 
28th, and returned to England April 25th. 

The Ameer i'akoob Khan arrived in the British camp at 
Gandamak, and was received in state by Major Cavagnari May 
8th, and on the lt»th an announcement was made in both Houses 
of Parliament that a peace had been agreed to with that prince ; 
by it a British Resident is appointed to Cabul, whose safety and 
honorable treatment the iVmeer guarantees. 

On May 16th, a debate concerning the general Eastern policy 
of the government was originated by the Duke of Argyll. He 
went back to the position of Turkey fou.r years before, when 



1879.] VICTORIA. 631 

disturbances first began in Herzegovina, and invited the House 
to consider liow that position had been affected by fom- years 
of negotiation and war. He ridiculed the pretensions of the 
government that they had effected their dechired purpose to re- 
tain against the Treaty of San Stefano something substantial of 
the Tiii'kish Empire, and to resist, as far as they could, any sub- 
stantial gains to liussia. 

The Treaty of J>erlin was nothing but the Treatj^ of San 
Stefano, with a few comparatively unimportant modifications. 

The first result of the policy of the government, lie main- 
tained, was, " that Turkey was gone — gone for ever. ' " Do 
not,'' he said, " deceive yourselves with fine phrases, Turkey, as 
an empire, is dead and gone ; she has lost more than provinces 
— she has lost that which is essential to empire : she lias lost 
her independence." 

The list of measures enumerated in the ministerial state- 
ments made at the commencement of the session, in lieu of the 
queen's speech, was not of a startling kind. Thirteen l)il]s, alto- 
gether, were announced, the first of which was the Army Dis- 
cipline and liegulation I3ill, designed to consolidate and amend 
the mutiny act and the articles of war; the consolidation of the 
criminal law ; the amendment of the law of bankruptcy, and 
of the law relating to the summary iurisdiction of mai;istrates ; 
provision for the expiiy of the powers of the railway commis- 
sioners; the establishment of county boards; the amendment of 
the grand jnry law of Ireland ; the improvement of the system 
of valuation ; and the amendment of the Poor Law of Scotland. 

The following were the estimates for the ensuing year : ex- 
penditure, £81,153,573 ; revenue, £83,055,000, the estimated 
charge for the army being £15,615,000, and the number of men 
one hundred and thirty-six thousand. The total estimates for 
the navy was £10,600,000, Avith a force of fifty-eight thousand 
men and six thousand boys. During the last ten years two 
liundred thousand tons of shipping had been built for the navy, 
half of which had been iron-clads. On August 15th Parliament 
was prorogued by commission. 

In the queen's speech allusion was made to the execution of 
the Treaty of Berlin, the happy termination of the Afghan and 



(532 VICTORIA. [1879. 

South African wars, and the passing of the several l)ills before 
enumerated. 

Toward the end of August public attention was arrested by 
symptoms of a revival of trade, which was directly connected 
with one of the causes of agricultural depression : the enormous 
impoi'tation of food from America. Telegrams announced a 
great improvement in tlie iron trade of America, but for some 
time the news was received with some skepticism. It was 
doubted whether the revival was healthy, but in September the 
evidences of reviving prosperity in America were too great to 
be resisted, this revival inaking itself felt at first doubtfully. 
In the north of England orders for pig-iron were received at 
Middlesborough, and there was a brisk demand for iron and 
steel rails at Sheffield. The shnnbering fni-naces were put in 
full blast and closed mills were re-opened — the fact could no 
longer be doubted. 

Still the symptoms of prosperity were at best so faint, that when 
Lord Ijeaconsheld, at the Lord Mayor's banquet, Xovember lOth, 
congratulated the country upon it. the chief signs of its existence 
upon vv'hicli he relied was the marked increase in the ])roduction 
of chemicals. Later in the year tliero was a great deal of com- 
ment among financial writers on the fact that, with all the signs 
of reviving prosperity in trade, there was still such abundance of 
loanable capital and no advance in the price of money. The 
purchases made by American merchants in England, however, 
were very far from being ecpial in amount to their enormous 
sales. 

In the course of eiffht weeks followino; Auo;ust 1st no less than 
£12,000,000 in gold was received at the port of Kew York. 

News reached London, September 0, 1879, of the revolt of 
the Afghan troops^ and of the murder of Sir Louis C'avagnari 
and the whole British mission, on the 3d instant, at Cabul. 
The British officers included Mr. Jynkins, secretary to the mis- 
sion, Lieutenant Hamilton, V. C, in connnand of the troops, 
and Dr. Kelly, of the Guides' Corps. The march of the troops 
was immediately countermanded, and Cabul was again occupied 
by the British, imder General lioberts. A court of incpu'ry and 
a court-niarnal were formed ; tlie ringleaders were tried, found 



18S0.] VICTORIA. 633 

guilty, and executed, and documents being found implicating 
the Ameer, lie was removed to India to be under tlie surveillance 
of tlie government there. 

The London Times, in its leader of January 1, ISSO, writes : 
" It would be rash to make sure that the beginning of 1880 is 
a turning-point in our affairs. AVe leave behind us in 1879, a 
year which has combined more circumstances of misfortune and 
depression than any within general experience. There have, 
indeed, been moments of intense anxiety in the course of the 
national life during the past thirty years, but the combination 
of untoward influences during 1879 has been unique. They 
have eclipsed, perhaps unduly, the satisfactory progress of some 
important interests, but they have not the less been painfully 
persistent. We have been forced into two peculiarly ungrateful 
wars, in two continents, and, though ultimately successfid, we 
have in each case encomitered a lamentable disaster. A British 
force was annihilated in South Africa, and a British embassy 
massacred in Afghanistan, and many lives, of Avhich the loss has 
been keenly felt at home, have been sacrificed in repairing these 
misfortunes. 

"The sti-ain, moreover, has had to be borne with diminished 
resources and energy. Commerce, till lately, has been stagnant, 
and an almost constant ungeniality in the weather has been 
•equally depressing to our own vital forces and to those of nature 
at large. 

" Agriculture has suffered from an adversity so severe as to 
impose a heavy burden upon all classes connected with the land, 
from the highest to the lowest. 

" Under this manifold strain the weak points of our financial 
organization have been revealed, and the failure of several banks 
has materially aggravated the general disturbance. 

" Amidst the general sense of depression party spirit in poli- 
tics has displayed a bitterness which the most experienced poli- 
ticians confess to exceed anything within their remembrance, and 
an eloquent voice has at length raised the passionate cry that the 
ministr}' of the day must be thrown overboard to appease the 
political and financial tempest. This is the exaggeration of 
panic ; but it is true that we have, in most respects, been pass- 



034: VICTORIA. [isso. 

ing through an iinusuallj hard time, and that there prevails an 
anxious craving for some decisive turn in the current of public 
affairs. 

"The new year happily opens amid circumstances which, in 
several respects, justifv an expectation that this favorable change 
has actually commenced. Trade, though yet far from having 
I'ecovei'ed its former vigor, has at least ceased to be stagnant. 
The weather, if not agreeable, is at least not unseasonable, and 
the farmers may, at any rate, indulge hopes of a better time." 

A terrible disaster occurred on Christmas night — the destruc- 
tion of the Tay raili-oad bi'idge — while a train was passing over 
the centre span, and every soul perisiied. 

Parliament was opened Fel)ruary 5, 1S80, by the cpieen, the 
first time in three years. In the speech from the throne she 
said : 

""It is with much satisfaction that I again resort to the advice 
and assistance of my Parliament. 

" My relations with all foreign powers continue to be friendly. 
The course of events since the prorogation of Parliament has 
tended to furnish additional security to the maintenance of 
European peace on the principles laid down by the Treaty of 
Berlin. 

"Much, however, still remains to be done to repair the dis- 
cord with which the late war has aifected many parts of the 
Turkish Empire. 

" A convention for the suppression of the slave-trade has been 
concluded between my government and that of his Imperial 
Majesty the Sultan. 

" At the (?lose of your last session I expressed my hope that 
the treaty of Gandamak had happily terminated the war in 
Afghanish'U. In conformity with its provisions, my envoy, with 
his retinue, was honorably received and entertained by the 
Ameer at Cabnl. While engaged, however, in the exercise of 
their duty, and in those connected with the embassy, they were 
treacherously attacked l)y overwhelming numbers, and, after a 
heroic defence, were almost all massacred. An outrage so in- 
tolerable called for condign chastisement, and my troops, M'hich, 
pursuant to the stipulations of the treaty, either had withdrawn 



1880.] VICTORIA. G35 

or were withdrawing from the territory governed by the Ameer, 
were ordered to reti-ace their steps. The skill exhibited in the 
rapid march upon Cabul, and in the advances npon the other 
lines of action, reflects the highest credit npon the officers and 
men of my British and native forces, whose bravery has shone 
with its wonted lustre in every collision with the enemy. 

" The abdication of the Aineer and the unsettled condition of 
the country, render the recall of my troops impossible for the 
present ; but the principle on which my government has hitherto 
acted remains unchanged, and while determined to make the 
frontiers of my Indian Empire strong, I desire to be in friendly 
• relations alike with those who may rule in Afghanistan and 
with the people of that country. 

" My anticipations as to the early establishment of peace in 
South Africa have been fulfilled. The capture and deposition of 
the Zulu king, and tlie breaking up of military organization on 
' which his dynasty was based, has relieved my possessions in that 
part of the world from a danger which has seriously impeded 
their advancement and consolidation. In Besutoland a native 
outbreak of considerable importance has been effectually quelled 
by my colonial forces, while the Transvaal has been freed from 
the depredations of a powerful chief, who, having successfully 
i-esisted the former government of the country, had persistently 
rejected our attempts at conciliation. I have reason to hope 
that the time is now approaching when an important advance 
may be made toward the establishment of a union or confeder- 
ation, under which the power of self-government, already en- 
joyed by the inhabitants of the Cape Colony, may be extended 
to my subjects in other parts of South Africa. 

" The commission which, at the close of the session, I informed 
you I had issued to inquire into the cause of agricultural depres- 
sion throughout the United Kingdom, is pursuing its labors. 

"In the meantime the serious deficiency in the usual crops in 
some parts of Ireland has rendered necessary special precautions 
on the part of my government to guard against the calamities 
with which those districts were threatened. 

"With this view they called upon the authorities charged 
with the duty of administering relief to make ample prepara- 



03G VICTORIA. [ISSO. 

tions for the distribntion of food and fuel, should such a step 
Ijecouie necessary, and thej have also stimulated the eniploj- 
nient of labor by advances, on terms more liberal than those 
prescribed by the existing law. 

" I feel assured that you will give your sanction to the course 
which has been adopted, when it may have exceeded the power 
entrusted by Parliament to the executiv^e government. 

"A proposal will be submitted to you for providing the 
funds recpiired for these exceptional advances on the security of 
the property administered by the Church Temporalities Com 
missioners." 

On the debate on the address to the queen's speech there was 
some opposition by the Irish members, but it was carried by a 
vote of two hundi-ed and sixteen to sixty-six, 

A l)ill was l)rought forward by the Chancellor of the Exche- 
quer to render valid certain proceedings taken for the I'elief of 
distress in Ireland, and to make further provision for such re- 
lief, and for other })urposes. 

A dispatch was received from Cape Town, dated February 
lltti, which stated : " The Cape Parliament ineets on May Tth. 
The premier announces that the government intends sul)mitting 
proposals foi- railway extension, and a conference of delegates 
of all the South African colonies in confederation. The colo- 
nial financial pc^sition is sound, and a surplus expected,'' 

Parliament was prorogued March 24, 1880, by commission, 
the Lord Chancellor reading the speech from the throne, which 
said : 

" As the time assigned by law for the termination of the 
present Parliament is near at hand, I am induced, by consid- 
erations of public policy and convenience, to select this period 
of the session for releasing you from your legislative duties, 
with a view to an immediate dissolution, and the issue of writs 
for a general election. 

" I cannot part from you without expressing my deep sense 
of the zeal and ability which, during six years, 3'ou have con- 
sistently displayed in exercising 3-our important functions, nor 
without tendering to you my warm acknowledgments for the 
use:£ul measures which you have submitted for my acceptance, 



1S80.] VICTORIA. 637 

and especially for the manner in vrliicli you liave nplield a 
policy, the object of which ^vas at once to defend my empire 
and to secure the general peace. 

" My relations with foreign powers are friendly and favora- 
ble to tlie maintenance of tranquillity in Europe. 

" I entertain the confident hope that the measures adopted in 
Afghanistan will lead to a speedy settlement of that country. 

" I have much satisfaction in assenting to the acts you have 
passed for the relief of distress unhappily prevalent in parts of 
Ireland ; and trusting that these measures will l)e accepted by 
my Irish subjects as a proof of the ready sympathy of the Im- 
perial Parliament, I look forward with contidence to the re- 
stored prosperity of their country. 

" I rejoice to observe the indications of a general improve- 
ment in trade, and that the commercial depression wliich I have 
had to lament seems to be passing away. 

'' I have witnessed with the greatest sympath}^ the heavy 
losses sustained by the various classes connected witli the culti- 
vation of the soil, and have viewed with admiration the patience 
and high spirit with which they have contended against an 
almost unprecedented series of disastrous seasons. 

" The electors of the United Kingdom will be called upon 
forthwith to choose their representatives in Parliament, and I 
fervently pray that the blessing- of Almighty God may guide 
them to promote the object of my constant solicitude — the hap- 
piness of my people." 

The following day Parliament was dissolved by proclama- 
tion. Owing to the shortness of the session verj little business 
was consummated outside the measures passed for the relief of 
the distressed in Ireland, but was left for the new parliament 
to finish. 

The queen paid a short visit to the continent, and owing to 
the result of the elections giving a large gain to the Liberal 
party, by the advice of her ministers she retui-ned sooner than 
she intended, arriving in London April ISth. 

The elections being completed it was now possible to measure 
the extent of the Liberal gains. As the result the House of 
Commons received a considerably greater infusion of new mem- 



C)3S VICTORIA. fl880. 

hers than it did in either of the preceding general elections held 
since the passing of the reform l)ill of 1SG7. In 1S08 two 
hundred and twenty-eight new members were returned, and in 
IST-J: two hundred and twelve. The number this year was two 
hundred and thirty-six, of whom about two-thirds were Lib- 
erals and Home Kulers ; and the parties stand, Liberals, three 
hundred and fifty-four. Conservatives, two hundred and thirt}'- 
sev^eu, and Home Hulers, sixty-three. 

A greater amount of political activity had also been shown 
than during either of the precediug years. In 1868 the num- 
ber of uncontested seats was two hundred and eleven, and in 
1874 one hundred and eighty-one ; this year it had fallen to 
seventy-six. Proof of this increased political activity is also 
aiforded by a comparison of the total number of votes polled 
by the opposing parties throughout the United Kingdom this 
year and in 1874, allowances being made for an increase, since 
1874, of eleven per cent, in the number of electors on the 
register. 

The total number of Conservative votes recorded in 1874 
was 1,222,265 ; in 1880, 1,418,442. 

The total number of Liberal votes recorded in 1874 was 
1,436,215 ; in 1880, 1,882,847. 

Hecustered Electors. 

EiKjland and ]Valts. 

1880. 1874. 

1)03,658 Counties 823,364 

1,247,324 Provincial boroughs 1,124,242 

337,553 Metropolitan '• 285,503 

13,141 Universities 11,999 



2,501,676 2,245,108 

Scotland. 

94,695 Counties 82,807 

198,883 Boroughs 187,991 

11,936 Universities 9,510 

305,514 280,308 



1880.] VICTORIA. 639 

Ireland. 

170,698 Coimties 172,009 

57,290 Boroughs 49,860 

3,548 Universities 1,700 



231,536 223,569 

On analyzing the gross vote some cnrious resnlts appear. jSTo 
less than thirty-seven Liberal gains were determined by a gross 
majority of one thonsand seven lumdred and lorty-two votes, 
an average of forty-seven each ; and in eight of these eases the 
scale was turned in favor of the Liberal candidates l)y ten votes 
or nnder. In one constituency — that of South Norfolk — the 
Liberal candidate owed his seat to one vote alone. 

The queen returned to Windsor Castle from the continent on 
the evening of April 18th. The following morning Lord 13ea- 
consfield waited upon her Majesty, and in an audience tendered 
his resignation of office. On the 21st the Marquis of Ilartiug- 
ton was .sunnnoned to Windsor, but did not go without first 
connnunicating with Earl Granville. On his return in the 
afternoon he had an interview with Mr. Gladstone and other 
political friends. The following day he returned to Windsor, 
accompanied by Earl Gi-anville. Both had audience, and sub- 
mitted to her Majesty their conviction that Mr. Gladstone alone 
could successfully preside over a Liberal ministry. 

On their return to town Mr. Gladstone was sent for by the 
queen and instructed to form a cabinet. 

On April 30, 1880, the following appointments M^ere made : 

First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
;Mr. Gladstone ; Lord Chancellor, Lord Selborne ; President 
of the Council, Earl Spencer ; Secretary for Foreign Affairs, 
Earl Granville ; Secretary for India, the Marquis of Ilarting- 
ton; Secretary Home Department, Sir Vernon Ilarcourt; Sec- 
retary of the Colonies, Earl of Kimberley ; Secretary at War, 
Bight Honorable IL C. E. Childers ; First Lord of tlie Admi- 
ralty, Earl of Northbrook ; Chief Secretary for Ireland, Eight 
Honorable W. E. Forster ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancas- 
ter, Bight Honorable John Bright ; President Local Govern- 



QAO VICTORIA. [ISSO. 

ment Board, Mr. Dodson. The foregoing constituted the Cabi- 
net. 

Earl Cowper was made Lord Lieutenant of L-eland ; the 
Marquis of Ilipon Viceroy of India. 

Tlie London Gazette of April lUth contained the following 
notice : 

" The queen has been pleased to direct letters patent to be 
passed under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, ordering and declaring that the borough of 
Liverpool, in tlie county of Lancaster, shall be a city, and shall 
be called and styled ' the city of Liverpool,' in the county of 
Lancaster, and also appointing the Rev. Charles Kyle, M.A., 
Dean designate of Salisbury, to the newly founded bishopric of 
said city." 

The new parliament met on April 29, 18S0, Mr. Brand was 
re-elected Speaker. 

The following day, in the House of Lords, the Lord Chancel- 
lor, in the name of the royal connnissioners, informed Mr. 
Brand that thej^ had it in connnand fronr her Majesty to ap- 
prove the choice of the Commons. 

The Speaker then laid claim to the ancient and undoubted 
rights and privileges of the Connnons, which were all allowed, 
and agreed to. 

The Speaker then returned to the House of Commons, and 
informed the House that her Majesty approved of their choice, 
and had allowed the claims he had made on their behalf for 
their ancient privileges. The swearing in of the members was 
then proceeded M'ith. 

The royal connnission, in her Majesty's name, announced to 
Parliament that, in order to afford an opportunity for the issue 
of new writs for supplying vacancies in the House of Connnons, 
created by the acceptance of office from the crown by some 
members of the House, there would be a suitable recess, after 
which the two Houses would proceed to the consideration of 
such matters as would then l)e laid before them. 

Mr. Hall was returned for Oxford University instead of Sir 
Vernon Ilarcourt, the late member. 

The new parliament was formally opened by commission May 



1880.] VIOTORIA. (541 

20, 1880. The queen's speech was read by the Lord Cliancellor, 
as follows : 

" I avail myself of the earliest opportunity of meeting you 
after the general election and the arrangements required upon 
a change of administration. 

" The cordial relations which I hold with all other powei's of 
Europe will, I trust, enable me to promote, in concert with 
them, the early and complete fulfilment of the treaty of Berlin 
with respect to effectual reforms, and equal laws in Turkey, as 
well as to such territorial questions as have not yet been settled 
in conformity with the provisions of that treaty. I regard such 
a fulhlment as essential for the avoidance of further complica- 
tions in the East. 

^' In accordance with this view I have deemed it expedient to 
despatch an ambassador extraordinary to the court of the Sul- 
tan. 

" On the last occasion of my addressing you I expressed my 
hope that the measures adopted in Afghanistan would lead to a 
speedy settlement of that country. Since that period the gal- 
lantry of my troops has continued to be conspicuous, and the 
labors of my government in India have beeii unremitting. But 
I have to lament that the end in view has not yet been at- 
tained. My efforts will, however, be unceasingly dii'ected 
toward the pacification of Afghanistan, and toward the estab- 
lishment of such institutions as may be found best fitted to se- 
cure the independence of its people, and to restore their friendly 
relations with my Indian empire. 

" The condition of Indian finances, as it has recently been 
made known to me, has required niy special attention. I have 
directed that j'ou shall be supplied with the fullest information 
upon this weighty subject, 

" I invite your careful notice to the important question of 
policy connected with the future of South Af rici^. I have con- 
tinued to commend to the favorable consideration of the author- 
ities and of the people of the various settlements the project of 
confederation. 

"In maintaining my supremacy over the Transvaal, with its, 
diversified population, I desire both tQ make provision for the 
41 



042 VICTORIA. [18S0. 

security of the indigenous races, and to extend to the Euro- 
pean settlers institutions based on large and liberal piinciples of 
self-government. 

" I notice wirh satisfaction that the imports and exports of 
the countiy, as well as other signs, indicate some revival of 
trade. But the depression M-liich has lately been perceived in 
the revenue continues without abatement. The estimates of in- 
come which were laid before the last Parliament were fi'anied 
with moderation, but the time which has since elaj^sed exhibits 
no promise that they will be exceeded. 

'' Tlie annual estimates of charge, so far as they have not been 
already voted, will be j^romptly laid before youi 

" The late season of the year at whicli you commence your 
labors will, I fear, seriously abridge the time available for use- 
ful legislation ; but I make no doubt that you will studiously 
turn it to the best account. 

'• The peace preservation act of Ireland expires June 1st. 
You will not be asked to renew it. My desire to avoid the 
evils of exceptional legislation in abridgment of liberty would 
not induce me to forego in any degree the pei'formancc of the 
first duty of every government in providing for the security of 
life and property. But while determined to fulfil j;his sacred 
obligation, I am persuaded that the loyalty and good sense of 
my Irish subjects will justify me in relying on the provisions of 
the ordinary law, firmly administered, for the maintenance of 
peace and order. 

" The provisions enacted before the dissolution of the late 
parliament for the mitigation of the distress in Ireland have 
been serviceable for that important end. The question of the 
sufficiency of the advances already authorized by Parliament is 
under my consideration. 

" A measure at an early day will be submitted to you for 
putting an end to the controversies whicli have arisen in respect 
to burials in cliurchyards and cemeteries. 

" It will be necessary to ask you to renew the act for secret 
voting. 

" Among the chief subjects which will be brought before your 
notice, as time nuiy permit, will be a bill for giving more effect- 



1880.] VICTORIA. 643 

iial protection to tlie occupiers of land against injury from 
ground game, for determining on a just principle tlie liabilities 
of employers for accidents sustained by workingmen, and for 
tlie extension of the borough franchise in Ireland." 

The affairs in Afghanistan are for the present at a stand-still, 
so far as the word can be applied to the military occupation of 
a turbulent country. Policy and prudence alike forbid the 
troops to move beyond their present position, and the season will 
soon be too far advanced for them to undertake the march to In- 
dia, even if the present condition of the country warranted their 
' doing so. The only thing to be done in the circumstances, there- 
fore, is to strive for a speedy and stable settlement of the 
country, so as to enable the army of occupation to return as 
soon as possible. 

The London Times says, in its issue of 31st of May : " This 
is the turning-point of the year. The prospects of agriculture 
just now are neither decisive nor uniform. The weather so far 
has been favorable, but many parts of England are suffering for 
the want of i-ain." 

At this point we close this abridged history. Parliament, so 
far, has been occupied with Irish matters and the admission of 
Mr. Bradlaugh, an atheist, into Parliament, he refusing to take 
the oath prescribed by law, because it contains the words, " so 
help me God." 

England is at peace with all the world, except in relation to 
the occupancy of Afghanistan, which, it is hoped, wiU soon be 
settled. 



ENGLAND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



England, including "Wales, the most populous, wealthy, and 
important portion of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, comprises the most southerly, the largest, and the most 
favored part of the Island of Great Britain. 

It is hounded on the north by Scotland, east by the German 
Ocean, south by the Straits of Dover and the English Cliannel, 
southwest by the Atlantic Ocean, and west by the St. George's 
Clian!iel and Irish Sea. 

It is situated between latitude 49° 57' 30" north, and longi- 
tude 1° 46' east, and 5° 41' west. The greatest length north 
and south is 425 miles, and its greatest breadth 280 miles. Its 
seacoast, if measured from one headland to another, is about 
1,200 miles ; if the principal indentations are followed, about 
2,000 miles. The area amounts to 58,320 square miles, of which 
7,397 belong to Wales. 

Taken by themselves, England and Wales are more densely 
populated than any other European country, except Belgium. 

The population in 1871, the last official census, was 22,- 
704,108 ; estimated in 1874 at 23,648,609 ; and in 1880 at 
24,750.000 souls. 

The country is divided into forty counties for England and 
tweh^e for Wales. 





ENGLAND. 




Bedford. 


Cumberland. 


Gloucester. 


Berks. 


Derby. 


Hants. 


Buckingham. 


Devon. 


Hereford. 


Cambridge. 


Dorset. 


Hertford. 


Chester. 


Durham. 


Huntingdon. 


Cornwall. 


Essex. 


Kent. 



G4G 



ENGLAND OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Lancaster. 


Nottingham. 


Sussex. 


Leicester. 


Oxford. 


Warwick. 


Lincoln. 


Rutland. 


Westmoreland. 


Middlesex. 


Salop. 


Wilts. 


Monmouth. 


Somerset. 


Worcester. 


Norfolk. 


Stafford. 


York, N. E. 


Northampton. 


Suffolk. 


" N. W. 


Northumberland. 


Surrey. 

WALES. 


" s. w. 


Anglesea. 


Carnarvon. 


Merioneth. 


Brecon. 


Denby. 


Montgomery, 


Cardigan. 


Flint. 


Pembroke. 


Carmarthen, 


Glamorgan. 


Radnor. 



The counties are variously subdivided into hundreds, wards, 
lathes, rapes, tithings, wapentakes, etc. 

The principal arms of the sea are : on the east, the estuary 
of the lluniber, the Wash, and the Thames; on tlie soutli, 
Southampton Water ; and on the west, the Bristol Clumnel and 
the estuaries of tlie Dee, Mersey, Morecomb Bay, and Sol way 
Frith, dividing the northwest limit of the country from Scot- 
land. The chief capes are : on the east, Flamborough Head, 
Spurn Head, the Naze, and the Xorth Foreland ; on the soutli, 
Dungeness, Beachy Head, the Bill of Portland, and Start and 
Lizard Points ; on the west, Hartland Point and St. Bees 
Head. 

The islands are : Holy Island, Lundy, -Isle of Man, Sheppy, 
Walney, the Isle of Wight, and the Scilly Isles, 

The most considerable rivers are the Thames, Severn, Med- 
way, Trent, Ouse, Tyne, Tees, Wear, Mersey, Dee, Avon, . 
Eden, and Derwent, 

Its mountains are the Cross Fell, 3,000 feet above the level 
of the sea, and the Peak, in North Derbyshire, rising 1,800 
feet, in the Cambrian group ; the Sea Fell, the loftiest moun- 
tain in England, 3,166 feet, with the Ilelvellyn and Skiddaw, 
both about 3,000 feet. The Devonian Pange includes the hills 
of CV>rnwall, Devon, and part of Somersetshire. These are not, 
nearly so lofty as the others. The mountains in Wales are : 
Snowden, 3,571 feet ; Arthur's Seat, 2,000 feet ; Plenlimmon, 
2,700 feet ; and the Black Forest Pange. 



ENGLAND OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Q4:7 

The principal lakes are Windermere, Ulleswater, and Der- 
wentwater. 

Eno-land combines within itself all that is most desirable in 
scener}', with all that is most necessary for the snbsistence of 
man. 

Although its features are molded in a comparatively minute 
scale, they are marked with all the agreeable interchange Nvhich 
constitute picturesque beauty. 

Few countries possess a smaller proportion of land absolutely 
sterile and incapable of culture. The richest parts are, in gen- 
eral, the midland and southern counties. Toward the north the 
soil partakes of the barrenness of the neighboring portion of 
Scotland, and the east coast, in many parts, is sandy and marshy. 

A rano-e of moor and elevated land extends from the borders of 
Scotland to the very heart of the land, forming a natural division 
from the east and west sides of the kingdom. Cornwall and 
Wales are also rough and hilly, and the latter, next to Scotland, 
the most mountainous in the British Islands. 

The Political Institutions and Government of Great 

Britain. 

TuE government of Great Britain and Ireland is that of a so- 
called constitutional monarchy. The sovereign represents the 
executive, whilst the legislature is exercised by the Imperial 
Parliament. 

The " Act of Settlement " settles the succession of the crown 
upon the descendants of Sophia of Brunswick, and no change in 
the act can be made except by consent of Parliament. 

Tlie heir apparent since Edward III. assumes the title of 
Prince of Wales. 

The civil list granted to the queen amounts to £363,YG0 a 
year, in addition to which she enjoys the revenue of the Duchy 
of Lancaster, amounting to £37,000 a year. The raenibers of 
the royal family receive annuities amounting to £132,000, and 
the Prince of Wales in addition has the revenues of the Duchy 
of Cornwall, amounting to £63,000 per annum. 

The royal palaces are Buckingham, St. James's, Kensington, 



04s EiSTGLAND OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Windsor Castle, Hampton Court, Kew, Frogir.ore, Busliy Park, 
Claremont, Eiehmond Park, Greenwich, and Holyrood House 
in Scotland. The private residences of the queen are Osborne, 
Isle of Wight, and Balmoral, Scotland. 

Parliament consists of the sovereign, the House of Lords, and 
the House of Commons, and no act obtains the force of law 
until it has been passed by all three. 

The House of Lords is hereditary, and numbers five hundred 
and eight memljers, including two archbishops and twenty-four 
bishops of the Established Church of England. More than 
two-thirds of tlie peerage are of recent creation ; only fourteen 
go back to the fifteenth century. 

The Lord Chancellor presides over the sessions of the House 
of Lords. 

The House of Commons consists of six hundred and fifty-four 
members, four hundred and eighty-seven for England and 
Wales, sixty-two for Scotland, and one hundred and five for 
Ireland. Of these three hundred and sixty are the representa- 
tives of three hundred and fifty-five boroughs; two hundred 
and eighty-three represent the counties, and eleven the universi- 
ties. In boroughs the right of voting is restricted to house- 
holders and to lodgers paying a rent of £20 a year; in counties 
to householders paying £10 rent. 

Members of Parliament are not paid for their services, nor 
are they able to compensate themselves by any exercise of 
patronage, as all government appointments in England are made 
for life, except a few connected with the Cabinet, who change 
with the government of the day. 

The sovereign appoints the members of the Privy Council, 
the Lord Mayor of London being the only ex-ojjicio member, 
but public business in reality is conducted by a Cabinet Council, 
whose members are likewise appointed by the sovereign, and 
who are of the ruling party in, and responsible to the House of 
Connnons. Their appointment is consequently virtually made 
by the party enjoying the majority in that House. 

The members of the Cabinet are : the First Lord of the 
Treasury (generally Premier) ; the Lord High Chancellor (the 
liighest legal oflicial and President of the House of Lords) ; the 



ENGLA.ND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. GIO 

Chancellor of the Exchequer, who has charge of the financial 
afPairs ; and Secretaries of State for the Home Department, 
India, the Colonies, Foreign Affairs, War, and the Admiralty ; 
the President of the Conncil, Lord Privy Seal, Postmaster- 
General, President of the Board of Trade, and Chairman of the 
Duchy of Lancaster. There are likewise, but generally without 
seats in the Cabinet, President of tlie Local Government and 
Chief Secretary for Ireland. 

The legal advisers of the crown are the Attorney- and Solici- 
tor-Generals, both of whom go out on a change of ministry. 

In Ireland the crown is i-epresented by a Lord Lieutenant ; in 
India by a Yiceroy. 

The administration of justice may be classed in two great 
divisions of common law and equity. 

The former comprises the Court of Queen's Bench, Common 
Pleas, and Exchequer, and the Courts of Probate, Divorce and 
Matrimonial Canses ; the latter includes those of the Lord Clian- 
cellor, the Lords Justices of Appeal, the Master of Polls, and 
three Yice-Chancellors, and the Court of Appeal in Chancery 
of the County Palatine of Lancaster. 

The new Judicature Act of 1874 combines these courts into 
a High Court of Justice, from which an appeal lies to a newly 
constituted " Court of Appeal." 

The House of Lords and the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
Council retain their appellate jurisdiction as regards Scotch, 
Irish, Colonial, Ecclesiastical, and Admiralty cases. In addition 
to the foregoing there are courts of bankruptcy, three ecclesias- 
tical courts, the Lord Mayors court, the sheriff's courts, and 
sixty county courts. 

The number of judges in the supreme courts, including the 
Lord Chancellor and the Lord Chief Justice of England, is 
about forty-six, including Masters in Chancery. 

The inferior jurisdiction is carried on by Justices of the Peace 
in petty and quarter sessions, and by stipendiary magistrates in 
the larger towns. 

In Scotland the Court of Session is the highest court for 
civil, and the Court of Justiciary for criminal cases. The Irish 
courts reseuible those of England, and there is in addition a 



f)50 EXGLAND OF TH3 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Landed Estates Court. Tlie sessions of tlie Justices of tlie 
Peace are presided over by a salaried barrister. 

The number of salaried judges tlirougliout the United King- 
dom is about four hundred and sixty, thej are appointed for life, 
and in most cases by the Loi-d Chancellor. 

The Police Force in England and Wales inimber twenty- 
nine thousand, in Ireland, twelve thousand, and in Scotland 
three thousand two hundred men. They are maintained by 
the local authorities, excepting that of London (except the city 
police), which depends upon the Secretary for the Home De- 
partmeiTt. 

The Established Church of England. 

Tnrs Episcopal institution is governed by two archbishops and 
twenty -nine bishops ; the archbishops and twenty -four bishops 
liave seats in the House of Peers. A large proportion of the 
Episcopal property is managed by coimnissioners who paj^ fixed 
incomes to the prelates, ranging from £15,000 to the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, to £2,000, which last is the income of 
the Bishop of Sodar and Man, who, however, is not a peer of 
Parliament. The inferior dignitaries of the Church are the 
deans, archdeacons, canons, and rural deans. The number of 
benefices is over thirteen thousand, and the clergy of every 
class number about twentv-three thousand. 



The Army. 

There is a law which renders service in the militia com- 
pulsory, but this law is at present in al)eyance, and the whole of 
tlie military forces of the United Kingdom are at present re- 
cruited by voluntary enlistment. The forces include the follow- 
ing categories : 

A regular standing army (exclusive of the Iiidian army) con- 
sisting of men who enlist for at least three years, the strength 
of which, as voted by Parliament, in ISSO, is one hundred and 
thirty-six thousand men. 

The militia, which is trained annually during four weeks, is 



ENGLAND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. (]5i 

recruited by enlistment, and numbers one hundred and thirty- 
seven thousand five hundred and fifty-six men. 

The army reserve force and enrolled pensioners, consisting of 
old soldiers, are trained annually twelve to twenty days, and 
number forty-six thousand .men. 

The yeomanry cavalry, numbering two hundred and eighty- 
four officers and fourteen thousand tliree hundred and thirty 
men. 

The volunteer corps, consisting of artillery, light horse, en- 
gineers, mounted rifles, and infantry, and number one hundred 
and ninety-four thousand one hundred and ninety-one men. 

The army is administered by a secretary at war, who is a 
cabinet officer, and generally a civilian, and the executive by 
a genel'al eommanding-in-chief, which is not a political office. 

The staff of general officers on the active list, 1880, consists 
of four field-marshals, one hundred and nine generals, one 
hundred and forty-four lieutenant-generals, and two 'hundred 
and forty-two major-generals. 

The present strength of the army is : 

CA^'ALRY. 

2 regiments Life Guards, 1 regiment Royal Horse Guards. 
7 " Dragoon Guards, 1st to Ttli. 

3 " Dragoons, 1st, 2d, 6th. 

13 " Hussars, 3d, 4th, 7th, 8th, 10th, llth, 13th, 11th, 

15tli, 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st. 
5 " Lancers, 5th, 9th, 12th, 16tli, 17th. 

THE KOYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY, 

5 brigades of horse artillery. 
24: " of garrison and field artillery. 

CORPS OF ROYAL ENGINEERS. 

10 companies and 3 troops. 

FOOT GUARDS. 

3 battalions Grenadiers ; 2 Coldstreams, and 2 Scots Guards. 



(552 ENGLAND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



INFANTRY. 

Ill regiments of infantiy of 14:2 battalions, viz. : 
84 single battalion regiments, 26th to 59th, and 01st to 109th, 
25 two " " 1st to 25th, 'and 

2 four " " GOth llifles, and Rifle Brigade, and 

2 West India, 1 Ceylon, and 1 Royal Malta regiments. And 
the Commissariat, Ordnance Store, Control, and Land 
Transport Departments. 

The Royal Navy. 

The navy is administei-ed by a secretary of the Admiralty, 
who is a member of the Cabinet and generally a civilian. He 
is also First Lord of the Admiralty. ' The executive is per- 
formed by a commission for executing the office of Lord High 
Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
consisting of tlii-ee sea and two civil lords commissioners. The 
present encumbents are Lord jS'orthbrook, First Lord ; Admiral 
Sir Astley Cooper Kay, Yice-Admiral Lord John Hay, Rear 
Admiral A. H. Hoskins, and Mr. Brassey, M.P. They change 
with the government. 

The staff of the navy on the active list, 1880, is six admirals 
of the fleet, eighteen admirals, nineteen vice-admirals, and 
thirty-one rear admirals. 

The number of seamen voted by Parliament for the naval 
service, 1880-81, was fifty-eight thousand men and five thou- 
sand three hundred boys. 

The number of ships in commission April, 1880, was fifty- 
four iron-clads, one hundred and tliirteen steamships, and 
thirty-two sailing ships, viz. : 

Iron-Claris. 

SMpn. Guns. Tons. Horse-power, 

18 of 8,000 tons and over 231 174,450 128,460 

27 " 3,000 to 8,000 tons, each. ... 273 147,500 100,850 
9 " 3,000 and under, each 52 15,200 6,800 



ENGLAND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 653 

Steanishij)s. 

Ships. Guns. Tons. Harse-potoer. 

34 over 2,000 tons, eacli 398 132,700 9i),300 

79 under 2,000 tons, each 360 68,540 74,630 

Sailing Ships. 
32 sailing ships 339 85,600 

199 1,653 623,990 410,040 

The royal marines consist of one general, one lieutenant-gen- 
eral, one major-general ; and sixteen companies marine artillery, 
two generals, two lieutenant-generals, five major-generals; 
and eighty -four companies marine light infantry. 



The British Orders of Knighthood. 

The Most Noble Order of the Garter : 
K. G. 

The Order of the Garter was instituted by King Edward III., 
in the year 1348. 

It consists of the Sovereign and twenty-five Knights Compan- 
ions, together with such lineal descendants of King George I. 
as may be elected, always excepting the Prince of Wales, who 
is a constituent part of the original institution. Special statutes 
have since, at different times, been promulgated for the admis- 
sion of foreign sovereigns. 

The ribbon of the order is garter blue ; the motto : Iloni soit 
qui nial y pense. 

The Most Ancient and Most Nohle Order oftJie Thistle: 

K. T. 
The Order of the Thistle was revived by King James II., in 
the year 1687, and re-established by Queen Anne in 1703. 

It consists of the Sovereign and sixteen Knights, besides mem- 
bers of the royal family. 

The ribbon of the order is green ; the motto : Nemo me im- 
pune lacessit. 



G54 ENGLAND OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

The Most Illustrious Order of St. Patrick: 
K. P. 

The Order of St. Patrick was instituted by King George III., 
Februaiy 5, 1783. 

It consists of tlie Sovereign, a Grand Master, and twenty-two 
Kniglits, besides tlie members of the royal family who may be 
elected. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for the time being 
acts as Grand Master. 

The ribbon of the order is sky blue ; the motto : Quis sepa- 
rabit ? 

Tite Most JYodle Order of the Bath. 

Instituted in 1399. Eevived in 1725. Enlarged in 18-17 and 
1858. 

Consisting of the Sovereign, First and Principal Grand Cross, 
and Great Master, and three classes. 

The first class to consist of Knights Grand Cross : 

G. C. B. 
Second class, Knights Commanders : 

K. C. B. 
Thi]'d class. Companions : 

C. B. 
The ribbon of the order, crimson ; the motto : Tria juncta in 
mio. 

After passing the grade of Companion the Knights are en- 
titled to the rank of Sir. 

The Most Excellent Order of the Star of India. 

Instituted by Her Majesty Queen Victoria, February 23, 
1861. Enlarged 1876. Consists of 
The Sovereign. 
Grand Master, the Viceroy of India. 

First class. Knights Grand Commanders : 

G. C. S. L 
Second class. Knights Commanders : 

K. C. S. L 



ENGLAND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. G55 

Third class, Companions : 

C. S. I. • 

Rank like and after the Bath. Hibbon of the order, liglit 
blue, white stripe toward the edge. Motto : Heaven's light our 
guide. 

The Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George. 

Instituted April 27, 1818. Enlarged 1868 and ISTT. 

The Sovereign. 

Grand Master, the Duke of Cambridge. 

First class, Knights Grand Cross : 
G. C. M. G. 
• Second class. Knights Commanders : 

K. C. M. G. 
Third class. Companions : 

C. M. G. 
Kank next and like the former. Ribljon of the order, Saxon 
blue, scarlet stripe. Motto ; Auspicium melioris aevi. 

The Order of the Empire of India. 

Instituted by Her Majesty Queen Victoria, Empress of India, 
January 1, 1878. 
The Sovereign. 

Grand Master, the Viceroy of India, and Companions. 

C. E. I. 

The Roycd Order of Victoria and Albert. 
The Sovereign and three classes for ladies. 

The Imperial Order (f the Crown of India. 

For ladies. To commemorate the assumption of Her Majes- 
ty's imperial title. 

Tlie Yictoria Gross. 

V. C. 

This decoration was instituted in 1850 for the purpose of re- 
warding individual acts of bravery performed by the officers in 
the lower grades in the naval and military services, or by war- 



(556 ENGLAND OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

niiit and petty officers, seamen, and marines in the navv, and 
non-commissioned officers and soldiers in the army. Every ad- 
♦litional act of bravery is recorded by a bar — attached to a bhie 
ribbon for the nav}^, and a scarlet ribbon for the army — by 
which the cross is suspended. 

A pension of ten pounds per annum is bestowed upon the 
iion-comraissioned and petty officers aid men who receive the 
cross, and five pounds a year with each bar. 



THE RELATIVE PRECEDENCE 

OF THE PEERAGE OP 

I 

ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, GREAT BRITAIN, IRELAND, AND THE 
UNITED KINGDOM. 

All Peers of Scotland shall be Peers of Great Britain, and 
have rank next after the Peers of a like degree in England at 
the time of the Union. 

The Lords of Parliament on the part of Leland shall have 
the same privilege as the Lords on the part of Great Britain, 
and shall hav^e rank next after the Peers of the like rank in 
Great Britain at the time of the Union. And all Peerages of 
Great Britain and Ireland shall in all other respects enjoy the 
same privileges, except those depending upon sitting in the 
House of Lords. 

There are sixteen Representative Peers for Scotland, elected 
by their own body at every general election, to sit in the House 
of Lords by act of the Union. 

There are twenty-eight Representative Peers for Ireland, 
elected by their own body for life to sit in the House of Lords, 
according to act of the Union. Vacancies filled as they occur. 

Peers according to Precedence, — Princes of the Blood. 

Style : His Royal Highness. Address : Sir, or, more formal- 
ly, your Royal Highness. 

Creation. 

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall 1841 

Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh 18G6 

Arthur William Patrick, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1874 

George William Frederick Charles, Duke of Cambridge 1801 

Earnest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland 1799 



658 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Style : The Most Reverend His Grace the Lord Archbishop. 
Addressed as, My Lord Archbishop, or, Your Grace. 

Appointeci. 

Dr. Archibald C. Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury 18(J8 

Dr. William Thomson, Archbishop of York 1863 

DuJces. 

Style: Most Noble His Grace. Address: My Lord Duke, 
or. Your Grace. 

Note. — The eldest sons of Dnkes, Marquises, and Earls take, by courtesy, their father's second 
title. The other sons and daughters of Dukes and Marquises are styled Lord William and Lady 
Maiy, as the case may be. The younger sons and daughters of Earls are styled Honorables, as 
well as sons and daughters of Viscounis and Barons. 

Scotch Peers are marked S. 

Irish Peers are marked /. 

Kepresentative Peers of Parliament are marked R. 




Henry Fitzalan-Howard Norfolk. 

Edwd. A. Seymour Somerset 

Chas. A. Gordon-Lennox |Richmond and Gordon. 

Wm. H. Fitzroy 'Grafton 

Hy. C. Fitzroy Somerset Beaufort 

Wm. A. de Vere Beaiiclerk St. Albans 

George G. Osborne Lkeds 

Francis C. H. Russell JBedford 

Wm. Cavendish Devonshire 

Jno. W. S. Churchill Marlborough 

Chas. C. J. Manners Rutland 

Wm. Hamilton-Douglas Brandon. Hamilton. . . 

S., Walter F. Douglas-Scott iBucclkuch 

S., Geo. D. G. Campbell |ARCiYLL 

S., Jno. J. H. Murray Athole 

S., Douglas B. R. Graham Montrose 

S., James H. J. R. Kcr Roxburghe... 

Wm. J. Scott- Bentinck Portland 

Wm. Drogo Montagu JManchester 

Hy. P. Pelham-Clinton !n ewcastle 

Algernon G. Percy ! Northumberland 

I.. Chs. W. Fitzgerald Lkinster 

Arthur R. Wellesley iWkllington 

E. Plantagenet Chandos-Grenville. . 'Buckingham and Chan- 

G. G. S. Levoson-Gower \ Sutherland [dos. 

Henry Geo. Powlett Cleveland 

I., James Hamilton Abercorn 

Hugh L. Grosvenor Westminster 



Eldest Sons or Heir a. 



1-18.3 Earl of Arundel and Surrey. 

1547 Earl St. Maur. 

I(i75 Earl ot March. 

1(175 " Euston. 

I(ib2 Marquis of Worcester. 

1084 Earl Burford. 

1094 Marquis of Carmarthen. 



Tavistock. 
Hartington. 
Blandford. 
Gran by. 

Douglas. 



1694; 

lfi94 
,1702 

1703 
.1711 1 

KiB-'J Earl of Dalkeith. 

1701 Marquis of Lome. 

1703; " Tullibardine. 

)1707i " Graham. 

17071 " Bowmont. 

'l71()' " Tichfield. 

1719 Viscount Mandeville. 

17.'6 EMrl of Lincoln. 
:i76ti|Earl Percy. 

17*il Marquis of Kildare. 
" Douro. 
" Chandos. 
" Stafford. 

1S33 Earl of Darlington. 

IStiS Marquis of Hamilton. 

1874 i Earl Grosvenor. 



1814 
18S2 
1833 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



C59 



Marquises. 

Style : The Most Honorable the Marquis of. 
Lord Marquis. 



Address: My 



John Paulett 

S., Charles Gordon 

S., John ShoUo Douglas 

S., Wm. Montagu Hay 

Hy. C. K. P. Fitzmaurice 

Jno. V. S. Townshend 

S., Schomberg H. Kerr 

Robt. A. T. Gascoyne- Cecil ...... 

John A. Thynne 

Francis H. J. Seymour. 

Jno. P. Crichton-Stuart 

I., Jno. H. rte La Poer Beresford. 

I., Arlhur Trumbull Hill 

I., Geo. H. Chichester 

I., Henry P. S. M jore 

I., Thomas Talour 

I.. George Jno. Browne 

I., Jno. H. W. G. Loftus. 

William A. Cecil 

Chas. D. Compton 

Jno. Chas. Prait 

Henry W. G. Paget 

Wm. H. H. Cholmonclcley 

Geo. H. Vane Tempest 

I., Geo. H. Conyngham 

Geo. W. B. Bruce 

I., James E. T. Butler 

I., Hubert De B. Canning 

Fred. W. J. Hervey 

Archibald Kennedy 

Geo. A. C. Phipps 

Geo. P. S. Robinson 

William Neville 



Titles. 



Winchester 1551 

Huntley 15!i!) 

QUEENSBERKY 1(5^2 

TWEEDDALE lt)94 

Lansdowne 1784 

Townshend 1T88 

Lothian 1701 

Salisburv 178!l 

Bath 1789 

Hertford 1793 

Bute. I79ti 

w ate rford 1789 

down.shire 1789 

Donegal 1791 

DllOGHEDA 'l791 

Headfort il8U0 



Eldest Sons or Heirs. 



Sligo 

Ely 

Exeter 

Northampton . 

Camden 

Anglesey 

Cholmondeley 
londonderuy. . 

Convngham 

Ailesbury 

Ormonde 

Clanricarde. . . 

Bristol 

AlLSA 

Normanby 

RiPON 

Abergavenny.. 



i8uu; 

18U0 
1801 

i8ia 

181-.> 
1815 
1>S15| 
181() 
181(i 
1831' 
1825 
1835 
1831) 
1831 
1838 
1871 
187« 



Earl of Wiltshire. 

" Aboyne. 
Viscount Drumlaurig. 
Earl of GifEord. 

" Kerry. 
Viscount Raynham. 
Earl of Ancrum. 
Viscount Cranbourne, 
Weymouth. 
Earl of Yarmouth. 

" Wind.sor. 

*' Tyrone. 

" Hillsborough, 

" Belfast. 
V^iscount Moore. 
Earl of Bectivc. 

'• Altamont. 
Viscount Loftus. 
lyord Burgliley. 
Earl Compton. 
Earl of Brecknock. 
Uxbrldge. 

' ' Rocksavage. 
Viscount Castlereagh, 
Earl of Mount Charles. 
Earl Bruce. 
Earl of Ossory. 
Viscount Burke. 
Earl Jcrmyn. 
Earl of Cassillis. 

" Mulgrave. 
Earl de Grey. 
Earl of Lewes, 



Earls. 
Style : Right Honorable. Addressed : My Lord. 



Names. 




Chas. J. C. Talbot Shrewsbury 1442 

Edwd. Hy . Stanley Derby 1485 

Francis P. P. Hastings Huntingdon ;1539 

Geo. R. C. Herbert Pembroke 1551 

Wm. R. Courtney De vo.n 15.53 

Henry 0. Howard Suffolk 1603 

Rudolf \V. B. Fielding.. | Denbigh litiSS 

Francis W. H. Fane j Westmoreland Ilfi34 

S., James Sinclair Caithness '1455 

S., Henrietta A. Leslie iRothes (Countess). . . .|1458 

S., Sholto J. W. Douglas (K.) JMorton 14.58 

S., David S. Erskine Buchan |14(i9 

S., Archd. Wm. Montgomery Eglinton... 1507 



Eldest Sons or Heirs. 



Viscount Ingestre. 
Lord Stanley. 

" Hastings. 

" Herbert. 

" Courtney. 
Viscount .\ndover. 
" Fielding. 
Lord Burghersh. 

•' Berriedale. 

" Leslie. 

" Aberdour. 

" Cardross. 

'• itontgomery. 



g(30 THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Earls — (Continued.) 




Eldest Sons or Heirs. 



S., Geo. Stuart Moray 1S62 Lord Bonne. 

S., Walter H. Erskine ( R.) Mar aiifl Kellie 1502 " Er.skine. 

S., Co.-^patrick A. Iloiiie Home lt)U4 " Douglas. 

S., George Drummond Perth and Melfort. . . 1005 Viscount forth. 

S., Claude Lyon-Bowes (R.) Sjrathmore lOOfi Lord Glaniis. 

S., Geo. Bailie-Alden-Hamilton (R.) Haddington 1619 " Bumiing. 

S., Alan Plantagonet Stewart Galloway Ki^^ '• Gailius. 

S., Thomas Maiclaad Lauderdale.., lt')24 Viscount Maitland. 

S., George Hay Kinnoul lOSiJ •' Dupplin. 

R., Chas. E. H. Abney-Hastings. .. LouDOuiN 10*33 •' Slauchline. 

S. , Victor A. Bruce Elgin 1033 Lord Bruce. 

S., James Carnagie Souxhesk 1033 ' ' Carnagie. 

S., Fran. W.-C.-Douglas Wemyss 1033 " Elcho. 

S , George Ramsay Dalhousie 1033 " liamsay. 

Geo. A. F. A. Bertie Lindsey H'>20 " Bertie. 

George Harry Gray SrAMFORD lOdiS " Gray of Groby. 

Geo. J. Finch-Hatton Winchelsba l<i~S Viscount Maidstone. 

Geo. P. Stanhope Chesterfield 10^8 Lord Stanhope. 

J no. Wni. Monuigue Sandwich lOOU Viscount Hinchinbroke. 

Arthur Algernon Capel EssFX . 1001, •' Jlaldon. 

Rev. Wm G. Howaid Carlisle 1001 " Morpetli. 

Anthony Ashley Cooper SHAFTi:s,BURY lOO^J Lord Ashley. 

Montague Bertie 'Abingdon 10ti:i '• Norreys. 

Rich'd Geo. Lumley ^Scarborough KHIU Viscount Lumley. 

Geo. Tho ICeppel Albi-Marle 10H5 " Bui-y. 

Geo. Wm. Coventry Coventry lOi'T " Deerhurst.'^ 

Victor A. G. C. Villiers 'Jersey 10S>7 " Villiers. 

Wm H. Poulett Poulett ntiO " Hinton. 

S,, Ale.K. W. C. Lindsay Crawford lo'.ib Lord Lindsay. 

S., William Harry Hay Erroll 1152 " Kilnuirnock. 

S.. Sigismund G. Bandini Newborough 1000 " Living.stoiie. 

S., Thos. Barnes Cochrane (R.) Ddndonald lOOi) " Cochr.ane. 

S., Franc. A. Keith-Falconer Kintore 1077 " Inverurie. 

S., David G. r». Ogilvy (R ) Airlie 1039 " Ugilvy. 

S., Harry B. Dalzell Caknwath KKU '• Dalzell. 

S.. Alex. Leslie Melville (R.) Leven and Melville.. 1011 Viscount Kirkaldy. 

S., Wm. J. M. ToUemache Dysart 10-13 Lord Uuntingtower. 

S., Dunbar J. Douglas (R.) Selkirk 10-10 •' Dacr. 

S., Geo. J. Carnagie INorthesK 10-17 " Rosehdl. 

S., Gavau Campbell Breadalbane I'ii^l; " Ornu-lie. 

S., John Hamiltou Gordon Aberdeen 1092 " Haddo. 

S.. Chas. A. Murray Dun.more lObO Viscount Fnicastle. 

S., Geo. Wm. H. Fitzoaurice Orkney 1098, " Kn-kwali. 

S., Jno. C. Grant Ogilvie Se.^field I'^Oi; " Reidhaven. 

S., Jno. Hamilton Dalryniple Stair l'Vu7 " Dalrymple. 

S., Archibald P. Primrose RoskberY 1'03 Lord Dalmeyney. 

S., Geo. Frederick Bovlo Glasgow l'i'03 Vi.scount Keibourne. 

S., Jno. Adam Louis Ijope Hopetown 1''03 Lord Hope. 

Sewallis Ed. Shirley Ferrers I'll Viscount Tamworth. 

William W. Legge 'Dartmodth 1711 '• Lewi.sham. 

Charle,, Bennett 'Tankerville 1714 Lord Ossulston. 

Henage Finch Aylesford l''ll " Guernsey. 

Franc. T. dc Gray Cowper 'Cowper 171S Viscount Fordwich. 

Arthur P. Stanhope Stanhope 1718^ •* Malion. 

Thos. A. W. Parker Macclesfield 1721; " Parker. 

Wm. Fred. Waldegrave Waldegrave 1729 " Ctiewton. 

Bortram A.shburnham Ashburnham ^J'^**! " ^'^ •'^'''^l''*- 

Ciias, Windam Stanhope Harrington 1742 '' Peteisliam. 

Isaac Newton Wallop Portsmouth 1743 " Lymington. 

Geo. Guy Greville Brooke. Waiiwick 1740 Lord Brooke. 

Rev. Augt. C. Hobart Bttckinghamshiue 1740 " Hobart. 

Wm. T. S. Wentvvorth-Fitzwilliam. FiTZWiLLiAM 1740 Viscomit Milton, 

Dudley Franc. North Guilford l'i'52 Lord North. 

Chas. Philip Yorke H iRDWicK 1754 Viscount Royslon. 

Henry C. Fox-Strangwav Ilchester 17.50 Lord Stiivordale. 

Rev. RegM W. Sackville" Dfi La Waru 1761 Viscyuut Cantilupe. 



THE PEERAGE OP GREAT BRITAIN. 



661 



Earls — (Continued.) 



X'amet, 




Eldest Sons or Beirs. 



1(147 Viscount Kiloour.sie. 
Ilib4 " Forbes. 

I7:i5 Lord Cliftun. 
17ya Visoouiic Perceval. 
17.^9 '■ Uuiicaiuion. 
W-V-S, " Iicerriii. 
irSli' *' Boyk-. 
1759| " Macduff. 
]7Ui Lord Sudley. 



Jacob Pleydell-Boiiverie Radnor 1765 Viscount Folkestone. 

Jno. Poyntz Spencer Spencer 17(55 " Althorpe. 

\Vm. Lennox Bathurst B athcrst 1772 Lord Apsley. 

Edw'd Hyde Villiers Clarendon . 1776 " Hyde. 

Win. David Muriay I Mansfield 1776 Viscount Stormont. 

Wm. Henrv Edgcumbe MonNT Edgccmbb J77i(| " Vallefort. 

Hugh Fortescue ^Fortescue '178!)' " Ebrington. 

Henry H. AI. Herbert |Carnahvon 17!»3 Lord Portchesler. 

Geo. Henry Cadogan ICadogaN II8UU Viscoujit Chelsea. 

J;is. Howard Harris :Malmesbdry jlSOO " Fitzharrls. 

I., Richd E. St. L. Boyle Cork jl62U " Dungarvan. 

I., Wni. St. George Nugent Westmeath !l(i21 Lord Delvui. 

I., William Brabazou Meath I]627i '• Brabazon. 

I.. Arthur Jas. Plunkett Fingall 1628 ' KiUean. 

I., Fred. J. W. Lamb?rt Cavan 

I., Geo. A. Hastings Forbes IGranard 

I., John Stuart Bllgh Darnley 

I , Chas. George Perceval ' Eg.mont 

L, Jno. G. Brabazon Ponsonby . . . ' Bessboroogk 

I., Somerset A. Butler Cakrick 

L, Henry Beiitic Boyle Shannon , 

S., James Duff Fife 

I., Philip Yorke Gore jArran 

I., Jas. Geo. H. Stopford CoukTOvvN 1763 Viscount Stopford. 

I., Edw'd N. Leeson Milltown |l7(5i| •' Kussborough. 

I., Jas. Molyiieux CauKield iCharlemont l';6ii " Caultield. 

I., John Vansittar(} Butler (R.) ILanesbouough |ri65 Lord Newton Butler. 

I., Edward Tournonr ' Winterton Il7li6 Viscount Touriiour. 

I., Wm. H. T. St. Lawrence Howth 17671 " St. Lawrence. 

I., Henry E. N. King Kingston 1768 " Kitigsborough. 

L, Wm. Philip Molfneux Sefton ;1771[ " Jlulyiieu.x:. 

I., Robert Jocelyn Roden il771i " Jocelyu. 

I., Ernest A. Vaughan Lisburnb 1776 Lord Vaiighan. 

1.. Richard Meade Clan Willi am 1776 " Gilford. 

I., Stephen Moore (R.) Mount Cashel 1781 " Kilworth. 

I., Wm. R. Macdonnell Antrim ^l^^ Viscount Duniuce. 

I., Wm. L. Packeiiham Longford 1785 Lord Packeuham. 

I., H'v J. Dawson-Diimer (R.) Portarlingtos 'l785 Viscount Carlow. 

I., De'rmorit R Bourke Mayo • |1785| '• Mayo. 

I., Hugh Annesley (R.) Annesley '1789, " Glerawly. 

I., Wm. W. Cole Enniskillen 1789, ■' CoIp. 

I., John Crichton (R.) ERNe !1789| " Crichton. 

1., Wm. ProbY Cary.sfort 1789 Lord Carysfort. 

I.. Wm. W. (j'C. Cuit'e Desart il7!13 Viscount Desart. 

I., Chas. F. A. Howard (R.) Wicklow ■Ti'it'^ Lord Clonmore. 

I., Jno. H. R. Scott (R.) Clonmell 1^93, " E^irlsfort. 

I., Wm. Sidney Clements Leitrim I7!t5 Viscount Clements. 

I., Geo. Chas. Bingham (R.) Luc an 1795 Lord bingham. 

I., Somerset Lowry-Corry (R.). . . . IBelmore I7i*7 Viscount Corry. 

I., Francis Bernard jBandon If'^JOj " Bernard. 

I., Henry J. S. Richardson. Castlestewart l^OOi '• Stesvart, 

I., Jno. L. G. Hely-Hutchinson Donougilvore ISL'O " Suirdale. 

1 I.. James Alexander (R.) Caledon 18001 " Caledon. 

X., Valautine A. Browne Kenmare 'i^'J] " Castlecross, 

>ranc. K. St. C. Erskine Rosslyn If'Ol Lord Loughborough. 

Geo. G. Craven Craven l'^*''! Viscount IJffington. 

Wm. H. Onslow Onsi.ow l^Cll •' Cranley. 

Charles Mar^ham Romney I8OI1 " Marsham. 

Henry T Pelham Chichester 1^' 1 Lord Pelham. 

Thomas Egerton WiLTON 1*^61 Viscount Grey de Wilton. 

I.. Wm. H. C. Pery Limerick 180y Lord Clentworth. 

I., Rich'd S. Le-Poer-Trench Clanc aRTY 1803 Viscount Dunlo. 



Edw'd J. Herbert Powis 

Horatio Nelson Nelson 

I., Archibald B. Acheson Gosford. . .. 

I., Jas. C. H. Elli.s-Agar Normanton. 



1804 
1S05 
1806 

18(ia 



Clive. 
Trafalgar. 
Acheson. 
Sommerton. 



662 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN 



Ea7'ls — (Continued.) 




I., Lawrence P.arsons (R.) Rosse 18(J(i Lord Oxmantowu. 

Sydney \V. H. Pierrepont. Man vers INMi Vihcount Newark. 

Horatio Walpole Urfokd loUti Lord Walpole. 



]SU() Viseouiit Howick. 
]!>07 " Lowther. 



ISO!) 

ibia 

US13 



Henry Grey Gkey . 

St. Geo. Henry Lowther Lohsdale. . 

Dudley Ryder Hakrowby. 

H'y Thyiine Lascelles Harewood . 

Wm. H. E. Kynynmound Minto 

Allan P. Cathcart ICathcart.. 

Jas, \V. Grinistun Vrrulam . . . 

Adelbert W. B. Oust Brownlow. 

Ed. Granville Eliot St. Geumains j]S15 Lord Eliot. 

Albert E. Parker Morley |]t<15 Viscount Boringdon. 



Sandon. 

Laseellcs. 

Melgund. 
ltil-4 Lord Greenock. 
1815 Viscount Griniston. 
1S15' " Alford. 



Orlando G. C. Bridgeman Bradford i^^l^, 

Frederick Lvgon Bealchamp ;1M5 

I., Wm. H. ii. White (R.) Bantky llSlG! 

1., Henry N. Holroyd Shefkield ^^^^''\ 

John Scott [Eldon 'l!-21t 

Rich'd W. Curzon-Howe Howe jl8-il t 

Chas. S. Soniers-Cocks So.merS llS'-il; 

John E.G. Rou.s Straddroee |l821l 

I., Francis J. Needham Kiljioky 18S2 

I., W. T. WyudhaniQuia Dunraten 1822^ 



I.. William Hare Lstowel. 

Wm. Pitt Amherst |Amherst. . 

Jno. F. V. Campbell Cawdor. . . 

I., Wm. B. L. Toler Korbury.. 

AVra. G. FitzClarence Mlnster . 

Eobt. A. 1'. Ualdane. 



l^2■^ 

18-,« 
18271 



Newport. 

Elniley. 

Berehaven. 

Pevensey. 

Encombe. 

Cnrzon. 

Eastnor. 

Dunwich. 

Newry. 

Adare. 

Ennismore. 

Hoi mesdale, 

Emlyn. 

Glundyne. 



18B1 Lord Tewksbniy. 
Ca.mperdown ]18yl Viscount Duncan. 



Thos. G Anson iLichfield 

I., Ucter J. JI. Knox Ranforley 

Geo. T. D"A. Lambton Durham 

G. J. Leveson-Govver 'Granville 

Henry Howard {Effingham 

Henry J. R Moreton DuciE 

Chas. A. W. Pelham Yarbouough ilBSTI " Worseley. 

Thos. Wm. Cuke :Leic ester. jl!-37 Viscount Coke. 

Wm. King- Noel ILovelace 18:.8 '• Oakham 

Lawrence Dundas Zetland |18;^8 Lord Dundas. 

Chas. Geo. Noel Gainsborougu ' IS-ll, Viscount Campdcn. 



18yi| '• Anson. 
18311 " Northland. 
1831 j " Lambton. 
1833 Lord Levesun. 
1837! " Howard. 
18;.7 " Moreton. 



Francis C. G. Egerton Ellesmere i-"^'^ 

Geo. Stevens Byng Strafford i^^f" 

Wm. John Peppys Cottenham !l850 

Henry R C. Wellesley Cowley 

William Ward Dddley 

Jno. F. S. Rus.sell JRus.sell 

Anns. L. Gower !Cuomartie (Countess).. 

John Woodhouse Kimberley 

Richatd Dawson I D arte re Y 

Wm E. Duncombe IFeversham 

Fred. Temple- Blackwood jDcfferin 

Jno. Robt. Townshend 'Sydney 



Brack ley. 

Entield. 

Crowhur.st. 
1857 " Danaan. 
18tiO " Ednam. 
18t)l " Amberley. 
IStil 

18()G Lord Woodhouse. 
18f)li " Creinorne. 
1808 Viscount Helmsley. 
1871 ' " Clandeboy. 
1874 " Townshend. 



Henry Thos. Liddel IRavensworth :1874 Lord Islington. 



E. jM. Stuai t-Wortlej-- Mackenzie. . .Wharncliff 

Thos. Geo. Baring INorthbrook. . 

Jno. Thos. Mittord IRedesdale 

H. McCalmont Cairns CAIRNS 

Benjamin Disraeli iBeaconsfielD. 

Geo. Watson Milks Sondes 

Ed. Bootle-Wilbraham Latham 

Ed. R. L. Bulwer-Lytton Lytton 



18';G Viscount Carlton. 
187(> " Baring. 
1876 Lord Redesdale. 
1876 / " Cairns. 
1878 Viscount Hughenden. 
1880 Lord Sondes. 
1880 1 •■ Skilmersdale. 
1880 " Lytton. 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



663 



o 



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664 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



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Baroness 

V. G. Ellis 

\Vm. B. Pctre 

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THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



665 






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GGG 



THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



1 ^^■-t-coc;oi-ii--'T-iT-i"^-t'ininini£:5io^^t-'Oococcooc50s?so50i5tc:i-H^u':oDo 
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THE PEERAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



667 



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6QS 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 



An Abstract of the Area and Population of the British Em- 
jdre, estimated in ISSO. 





Square Miles. 


Population. 


Great Britain and Ireland 


121,115 


sa .^00 000 


Indian Possessions, etc 


1,558,254 241,000000 


Other Eastern Possessions 


30,000 1 a ?00 OOf) 


Australasia , 

North America 


3,173,310 

3,620,500 

100,000 

270,000 

12,707 

120 

96,171 


2,500,000 
4,000,000 


Guiana, etc 


200,000 


Africa 


1,500,000 


West Indies, etc 


1,140,000 


European Possessions 


160,000 


Various Settlements 


200,000 








8,982,177 


287,400,000 



The Groicth of the National Deht. 

The debt of England at the Revolution of 1688 £664,263 

" " during the reign of William III 16,394,703 

" " *' " of Queen Anne 54,145,366 

" " on accession of George II., 1727 52,092,238 

" " at commencement of American War 128,583,635 

" " on conclusion of American War, 1784 249,851,608 

" "at commencement of French War, 1793 239,350,248 

" " after the peace, February 1, 1817 840,850,491 

" " " Crimean War, 1857 815,953,219 

*' " funded, unfunded, and annuities, 1879 .... 778,128,846 
Or about |3,890,000,000. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE. QQQ 

GENEALOGICAL TABLE. 

THE HOUSE OF CERDIC. 

Cerdic, the ancestor of the kings of England of the Saxon 
line, founded the kingdom of Wessex, a.d. 495. Cerdic died 
in 534, and from him Egbert, the first King of England, is de- 
scended as follows : 1, Cynrie, King of Wessex ; 2, Ceawlin ; 
3, Cuthwine ; 4, Cutha ; 5, Ceolwald ; 0, Cenred ; 7, Ingild ; 8, 
Eata ; 9, Eoppa ; 10, Alkmnnd, King of Kent, Mdiose son Eg- 
bert was elected to succeed JJrihtric in the kingdom of Wessex, 
A.D. 800. 

THE DESCENT FROM EGBERT TO QUEEN VICTORIA. 

1, Egbert ; 2, Ethelwulf ; 3, Alfred the Great ; 4, Edward 
the Elder; 5, Edmund; 6, Edgar; 7, Ethelred ; 8, Edmund 
L'onsides ; 9, Edward (not a king) ; 10, Margaret, wife of Mal- 
colm, King of Scotland ; 11, Matilda, wife of llemy I. ; 12, 
Matilda (empress), and wife of Geoffrey Plaiitagenet ; 13, Henry 
11. ; 14, John ; 15, Henry III. ; 16, Edward I. ; 17, Edward 11. ; 
18, Edward III. ; 19, Lionel, Duke of Clarence ; 20, Philippa, 
married Edward Mortimer, Earl of March ; 21, Roger Morti- 
mer, Earl of March ; 22, Anne Mortimer ; 23, Eichard, Duke 
of York ; 24, Edward lY. ; 25, Elizabeth ; 26, Margaret Tudor, 
married James lY. of Scotland ; 27, James Y. of Scotland ; 28, 
Mary, Queen of Scots ; 29, James YI. of Scotland, I. of Eng- 
land ; 30, Elizabeth, married Frederick, Elector Palatine ; 31, 
Sophia, married Ernest Augustus of Brunswick ; 32, George I. ; 
33, George II. ; 34, Frederick, Prince of "Wales ; 35, George 
III. ; 36, Edward, Duke of Kent ; 37, Yictoria. 



|KIAn3]949 



COPIES TO BK HAD OF 

ARCHIBALD H. Mc CALMAN, 

P R O V I S 1 O N ]; R O K E R 

(IN OPTIONS), 

No. 3 BOWLING GREEN, or PRODUCE EXCHANGE, 
N E W YORK. 

Rctiablc Statistical I/i/oniiatnui. 









lV^ % 


























,^^^^ 



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